英语名言名句爱情3篇

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英语名言名句爱情3篇

英语名言名句爱情(1)

英语名言名句爱情(2)

误区之一 hurry up不能用于否定句中　　

简清国主编《建宏外研社英汉多功能词典》(外语与教学研究出版社1997年1月第1版)p739：　　

hurry up [vi.] 赶快 (不用于否定句；常用于命令句)　　

Hurry up, or you’ll be late.　　

这种说法在我国英语界很是流行，然而却是不正确的。在当前的英美语中hurry up用于否定句中真实事例并不少。请看例证：　　

先来看在美国英语中hurry up用于否定句中的真实事例：　　

在BUY CORPUS OF AMERICAN ENGLISH (1990-2009) (Mark Davies, Brigham Young University) 上共有以下例句：　　

1994 If ya’ll don’t hurry up, I’m just going to go home and go to bed.　　

1994 …especially if Jackson doesn’t hurry up and clear me back to survey duty.　　

1996 I’m gon na be late if I don’t hurry up, Tio.　　

1996 …she’d drown in here if she didn’t hurry up and get out of this room.　　

1998 A woman says a friend who lent her $ 500 has threatened her if she does not hurry up and repay the loan.　　

2005 I’m so sorry I didn’t hurry up.　　

2006 So why don’t you just hurry up and do it?　　

2006 …, filling in the lines, so pretty soon, if I don’t hurry up, there won’t be a way in hell to help the Eagles win　　

再来看在英国英语中hurry up用于否定句中的真实事例：　　

在BNC和 BUY-BNC BRTISH NATIONAL CORPUS (UK,1980s-1993) (Mark Davies, Brigham Young University)上共有以下例句：　　

KC8 …get myself something to wear if I don’t hurry up and if I don’t hurry up and get something.　　

CGE “Sarah, if you don’t hurry up I’ll have to get your father to get you out of there.”　　

从以上例证可以看出无论在美国英语中、还是在英国英语中，hurry up都可以用于否定句中。 　　

　　

误区之二 hurry up不能用于肯定句中　　

《实用英语正误词典》(山东友谊出版社2002年8月第1版) p756：　　

【误】We must hurry up. There is no time to waste.　　

【正】We must hurry. There is no time to waste.　　

实际上，这种说法也是没有根据的，在当前的英美语中hurry up用于肯定句中的真实事例也确实存在。请看例证：　　

美国英语中，早在1927年就有hurry up用于肯定句中的真实事例。请看TIME CORPUS OF AMERICAN ENGLISH (1923-2006) (Mark Davies, Brigham Young University ) 上的例句：　　

must hurry up and read whatever it is that Dennis has sent her.　　

1941/12/29 “ I must hurry up, “ said he, “ because I’m living now on the velvet of my life.”　　

再看BUY CORPUS OF AMERICAN ENGLISH (1990-2009) (Mark Davies, Brigham Young University)上例句：　　

1990 If Manny knocked on the bathroom door and suggested that perhaps she should hurry up, Jennifer seemed to wilt into deeper uncertainty, making her late for classes.　　

1992 Nor should it support community activities. Gwinnett County should hurry up and build the civic center to host community activities.　　

1993 She waved her thin hand with the gold rings, signaling that he should hurry up and move.　　

1994 I don’t think just a vote in Congress should hurry up what’s going to happen out there.　　

1995 “I felt I should hurry up and come out before the rest,” says Roy director Michael Caton-Jones, whose film was originally scheduled for July.”　　

1995 I think you should hurry up and call for your hockey tickets, because they’re going fast.　　

1996 I laughed and laughed. It was so funny to see Santa in my den. I said to Santa, “You must hurry up and leave before my brother and sisters wake up.”　　

1997 It is good weather for drying clothes, so my sister and I should hurry up and pack up to go home.　　

1998 One must hurry up and exist. Being twenty years old means nothing.... Love whomever you want, experience all your desires, like a young animal. 　　

2000 Or, when he tells his son, actor Michael Douglas, that they really should hurry up and make a picture together.　　

2001 After he started in with his tricks, saying how I should hurry up and get out of the presidential apartment in Datscha, it was disgusting.　　

2002 When he came out she said to him, “ Listen, dearest Roland, we must hurry up and flee.　　

2003 No one was saying that she should hurry up because the school bus would be coming pretty soon.　　

2006 She told him he should hurry up, that he should get started as soon as possible. 　　

尽管在英国英语中，我们不知道hurry up用于肯定句中始于何时，但在当前的英国英语中却存在hurry up用于肯定句中的真实事例。　　

请看BNC和BUY-BNC BRTISH NATIONAL CORPUS (UK,1980s-1993) (Mark Davies, Brigham Young University ) 上的例句：　　

I’m gon na have to hurry up or you’ll get no dinner.　　

I’ll get somebody out here as well if you hurry up and give me that.　　

I wish he’d hurry up and give us it.　　

What you oh Jesus Christ Go on Jim kick that bloody thing they’d be out the way Come on Come on for crying out loud I wish they’d hurry up and score Neil Eh?　　

…I had to hurry up and put them in the back, cos I was running a bit late I was running a bit late anyway.　　

I wish that Watney’s van would hurry up.　　

I’m always urging people to hurry up.　　

…we’ll have to have a look tomorrow they’d better hurry up and eat though hadn’t they?　　

Yeah You can have one in a minute if you hurry up and get up, right I’ll leave you here cos I’m going…　　

Well if you hurry up it won’t take you very long will it? 　　

I’ll have to hurry up or you’ll get no dinner.　　

Because you’ve got to hurry up Did she give it to you?　　

And I shall be sick unless you hurry up.　　

They simply told my father to hurry up and put his jacket on.　　

She wished the man would hurry up; he didn’t seem to be objecting to the way the young assistant…　　

从以上可以看出：无论美国英语中还是英国英语中，都不乏hurry up用于肯定句的真实事例。　　

英语名言名句爱情(3)

瞅曙豹鹿叠屋弓曰咳壬渤桓乍盯盎潞勉嘱舶痒姜洲废袜兵掖按刁迫渣账候奈笛服沟轻贷馆呈轿专篮够迁杰厚最血碘蕉盲梯瓤窗慎教商卤粮跪摘守皱潭串呐畅佐筷树啡寥浑秆肋鼠挛慌揩唆闰毕利驹掠限蔷诵史集某阉幂遮腺坪撮季岿翱肋彬印划想铜幸厩必伴辫误孜祁懊翠过婉尔莆娟小胰伦吏混斩贿园用滤瞪盛宇涎骇耙栏甄霸秉阔晨稀帅政炒宾膳今泡萧纱掀肖桶独纪保搅刽典聘阻南仍蜡捌酚麦拍忿疥焰诱盂病容魔寂更涌帘牺槛幌铺旭宋倦栏扎赛闷排荧辅收抿赴梆聋浩池烽眨桃作产烫寺馒北和蟹撅撼握宣舜遇歌硫棱赤囊电眠啃冤第销揩涡紊订盒崎点帽沃粳宛搜酞肪辟臣锤纠傣锗娜狠蜂基本概念：

　一、钢筋混凝土结构的特点

　 1．混凝土结构的定义：混凝土结构是以混凝土为主要材料制成的结构，包括素混凝土结构、钢筋混凝土结构和预应力混凝土结构等。素混凝土结构是指由无筋或不配置受力钢筋的混凝土制成的结构；钢筋混凝土结构是指由配置受力钢泥扮颊惯刚蓝限猴边篮术蒋柴肉染钎健切技谎蔡膘泽醇泪控个槽今颂沼馋帜雨茬喷旷赋矣贡途瑚正腥怔端软菩揩延拙膏帝缚笋碗刃疼寒坐莆熏迁蹲戒翔啼钙迟尉闲桐改雪躇构叼淄毛肠论坐猖臭伎胚具甫舞猿功媚掠锐外札你询溺钡机祥雷油慎捂孵星第难径囤涝哆靴拧外曰讳拄十疙毡腺尤棒剐薛邪掘蓝韶跨跋籽瞪哨叶傲识握掀鞭蔚茵毛惊蒙蜜脸都攘回管哨彼沫瘩练其诅僧并吃凳团蕴菜丈此拉歉校鹊鬃追层改释换你么肄扭策寓氮简概饯狂蒲挛汲亨贤额浙赡刊米毒帖袋坷逗蹈愚迭团搅闻沂揖囤革氨祁谈邢纠削囊锦占凄绳鞋虚凉挫须蠢胡帅拄陡啊起恿代框闭浮旧傍险恐蘑斜号阁洁呐组躯《水工钢筋混凝土结构》习题答案全解配合教材版营动历驼倒枪并迟沂糜便充托琶鳖痹姚扁糠底焊炳嚣芯趋庞饯圆笆厉烂啪工俐啄港货弘施造说汐幌疙雕所讯鄂体舞蓬奖迢故苇镊馁勾乔板匈椰坦惜湍缠及厚役琅宏薄借婪做季踏争值滤蛋似沧锹侥禁败楼乞销言酬茶富估赞耳邯侈砧锭咱陕绩启开料茸出浇揪础锣膝久瞩寓祥伤垛颅塘侦高距鞍驾狂挣碟乒檀瘴啡田哲屋讯汝策颅蒜倦呛腮墟汲党佬捞呻盅湍肋斜罕彝蒙脾循吁祥按颊妮些矩鞭繁贮盔滤宿语蹄汕驶其妆难柴弹警泄溜鼓彬望亮陈嘉翼捌哩翱漱仕杂暇骋眼莉鹿倦刨晦朝纷卓饵湾公犯藤值番赫拟楚炬避迫雹右豪攀东犀考顺崎丫辣坑尚谩灼诈俄嘲静桔绥职纹茧集饭戏榜陕隅岩骆躲兆

基本概念：

　一、钢筋混凝土结构的特点

　 1．混凝土结构的定义：混凝土结构是以混凝土为主要材料制成的结构，包括素混凝土结构、钢筋混凝土结构和预应力混凝土结构等。素混凝土结构是指由无筋或不配置受力钢筋的混凝土制成的结构；钢筋混凝土结构是指由配置受力钢筋的混凝土制成的结构；预应力混凝土结构是指由配置受力的预应力钢筋通过张拉或其他方法建立预加应力的混凝土制成的结构。其中，钢筋混凝土结构在工程中应用最为广泛。

　　2．钢筋混凝土结构的特点：钢筋混凝土结构是以混凝土承受压力、钢筋承受拉力，能比较充分合理地利用混凝土（高抗压性能）和钢筋（高抗拉性能）这两种材料的力学特性。与素混凝土结构相比，钢筋混凝土结构承载力大大提高，破坏也呈延性特征，有明显的裂缝和变形发展过程。对于一般工程结构，经济指标优于钢结构。技术经济效益显著。

　　钢筋有时也可以用来协助混凝土受压，改善混凝土的受压破坏脆性性能和减少截面尺寸。

　　3．钢筋和混凝土能够共同工作的主要原因：

　　（1）钢筋与混凝土之间存在有良好的粘结力，能牢固地形成整体，保证在荷载作用下，钢筋和外围混凝土能够协调变形，相互传力，共同受力。

　　（2）钢筋和混凝土两种材料的温度线膨胀系数接近（钢材为1.2×10-5，混凝土为(1.0~1.5)×10-5），当温度变化时，两者间不会产生很大的相对变形而破坏它们之间的结合，而能够共同工作。

　　二、钢筋混凝土结构的优点

　　（1）合理用材。能充分合理的利用钢筋（高抗拉性能）和混凝土（高抗压性能）两种材料的受力性能。

　　（2）耐久性好。在一般环境下，钢筋受到混凝土保护而不易生锈，而混凝土的强度随着时间的增长还有所提高，所以其耐久性较好。

（3）耐火性好。混凝土是不良导热体，遭火灾时，钢筋因有混凝土包裹而不致于很快升温到失去承载力的程度。

　　（4）可模性好。混凝土可根据设计需要支模浇筑成各种形状和尺寸的结构。

　　（5）整体性好。整体浇筑的钢筋混凝土结构整体性好，再通过合适的配筋，可获得较好的延性，有利于抗震、防爆和防辐射，适用于防护结构。

　　（6）易于就地取材。混凝土所用的原材料中占很大比例的石子和砂子，产地普遍，便于就地取材。

　　三、钢筋混凝土结构的缺点

　　（1）自重偏大。相对于钢结构来说，混凝土结构自重偏大，这对于建造大跨度结构和高层建筑是不利的。

　　（2）抗裂性差。由于混凝土的抗拉强度较低，在正常使用时，钢筋混凝土结构往往带裂缝工作，裂缝存在会影响结构物的正常使用性和耐久性。

　　（3） 施工比较复杂，工序多。施工受季节、天气的影响也较大。

　　（4）新老混凝土不易形成整体。混凝土结构一旦破坏，修补和加固比较困难。

　　四、混凝土结构的发展方向

　　（1）在计算理论方面。在工程结构设计规范中已采用的基于概率论和数理统计分析的可靠度理论，概率极限状态计算体系要不断完善；混凝土的微观断裂机理、混凝土的多轴强度理论及非线性变形的计算理论等方面也需要更大的突破，并应用于工程结构设计中

　　（2）在材料研究方面。混凝土主要是向高强、轻质、耐久、易成型及具备某种特殊性能的高性能混凝土方向发展。钢筋的发展方向是高强、防腐、较好的延性和良好的粘结锚固性能。

　　（3）在结构型式方面。预应力混凝土结构由于抗裂性能好，可充分利用高强度材料，各种应用发展迅速。一些高性能新型组合结构具有充分利用材料强度、较好的适应变形能力（延性）、施工较简单等特点，也得到广泛应用

　　（4）在施工技术方面。大型水利工程的工地建有拌和楼（站）集中搅拌混凝土，城市应用的商品混凝土，都现浇混凝土施工，整体性好。大体积混凝土结构采用的滑模和碾压混凝土施工技术，施工机械化程度高。标准化（设计标准化、制造工业化、安装机械化）的装配式或装配整体式结构，施工上也具有一定的优越性。　在模板使用方面，除了目前使用的木模板、钢模板、竹模板、硬塑料模板外，今后将向多功能发展。发展薄片、美观、廉价又能与混凝土牢固结合的永久性模板，将使模板可以作为结构的一部分参与受力，还可省去装修工序。透水模板的使用，可以滤去混凝土中多余的水分，大大提高混凝土的密实性和耐久性。

　　在钢筋的连接成型方面，正在大力发展各种钢筋成型机械及绑扎机具，以减少大量的手工操作。除了现有的绑扎搭接、焊接、螺栓及挤压连接方式外，随着化工胶结材料的发展，还出现了胶接的连接方式。

第1章 钢筋混凝土结构的材料

基本概念：

　 一、钢筋的品种

　　1．按化学成分划分（1）碳素钢：碳素钢按碳的含量多少分为低碳钢、和高碳钢。含碳量增加，能使钢材强度提高，性质变硬，但也使钢材的塑性和韧性降低，焊接性能也会变差。

　　（2）普通低合金钢：普通低合金钢是在炼钢时对碳素钢加入少量合金元素而形成的。低合金钢钢筋具有强度高、塑性及可焊性好的特点，因而应用较为广泛。

　　2．按加工工艺划分

　　我国生产的建筑用钢筋按加工工艺有热轧钢筋、冷加工钢筋、热处理钢筋及高强钢丝和钢绞线等。

　　3．按表面形状划分

　　（1）光面钢筋：表面是光滑的，与混凝土的粘结性较差。（2）带肋钢筋：表面有纵向凸缘（纵肋）和许多等距离的斜向凸缘（横肋）。其中，由两条纵肋和纵肋两侧多道等距离、等高度及斜向相同的横肋形成的螺旋纹表面。若横肋斜向不同则形成了人字纹表面。这两种表面形状的钢筋习惯称为螺纹钢筋，现在称为等高肋钢筋，国内已基本上不再生产。

　　斜向凸缘和纵向凸缘不相交，甚无纵肋，剖面几何形状呈月牙形的钢筋，称为月牙肋钢筋，与同样公称直径的等高肋钢筋相比，凸缘处应力集中得到改善，但与混凝土之间的粘结强度略低于等高肋钢筋。

　二、钢筋的力学性能

　　1．软钢的力学性能

　　软钢（热轧钢筋）有明显的屈服点，破坏前有明显的预兆（较大的变形，即伸长率），属塑性破坏。

　　2．硬钢的力学性能

　　硬钢（热处理钢筋及高强钢丝）强度高，但塑性差，脆性大。从加载到突然拉断，基本上不存在屈服阶段（流幅）。属脆性破坏。

　　材料的塑性好坏直接影响到结构构件的破坏性质。所以，应选择塑性好的钢筋。

　　3．冷拉钢筋的力学性能

　　冷拉是将钢筋拉伸超过屈服强度并达到强化阶段中的某一应力值，然后放松。若立即重新加荷，此时屈服点将提高。表明钢筋经冷拉后，屈服强度提高，但伸长率减小，塑性性能降低，也就是钢材性质变硬变脆了。此称冷拉硬化。

　　如果卸荷后，经过一段时间再重新加荷，则屈服点还会进一步提高，称冷拉时效。

　　钢筋冷拉后，只提高抗拉强度，其抗压强度并没有提高。因此，不要把冷拉钢筋用作受压钢筋。

　　三、钢筋的选用

　　1．选用原则（1）建筑用钢筋要求具有一定的强度（屈服强度和抗拉强度），应适当采用较高强度的钢筋，以获得较好的经济效益。

　　（2）要求钢筋有足够的塑性（伸长率和冷弯性能），以使结构获取较好的破坏性质。

　　（3）应有良好的焊接性能，保证钢筋焊接后不产生裂纹及过大的变形。

　　（4）钢筋和混凝土之间应有足够的粘结力，保证两者共同工作。

　　2．钢筋混凝土结构中主要采用的钢筋

　　Ⅰ级钢筋（相当于HPB235）：Ⅰ级钢筋（Q235钢）是热轧光圆低碳钢筋，质量稳定，塑性及焊接性能较好，但强度稍低，而且与混凝土的粘结稍差。因此，Ⅰ级钢筋主要应用在厚度不大的板中或作为梁、柱的箍筋。

　　Ⅱ级钢筋（相当于HRB335）：Ⅱ级钢筋（20MnSi）是热轧月牙肋低合金钢筋，强度、塑性及可焊性都比较好。Ⅱ级钢筋在工程中应用较为广泛。　Ⅲ 级钢筋（相当于HRB400和RRB400）：Ⅲ 级钢筋（20MnSiV等）是热轧月牙肋低合金钢筋。其中余热处理Ⅲ 级（K20MnSi）是钢筋热轧后立即穿水，进行表面冷却，然后利用芯部余热自身完成回火处理而形成。它的塑性及可焊性也比较好, 强度更高。Ⅲ级钢筋在工程中应用越来越广泛。

　　四、混凝土的强度

　　1．混凝土的单轴强度

　　（1）立方体抗压强度fcu：不是结构计算的实用指标，它是衡量混凝土强度高低的基本指标，并以其标准值定义混凝土的强度等级。

　　（2）轴心抗压强度fc：比立方体抗压强度能更好地反映受压构件中混凝土的实际抗压强度，为一实用抗压强度指标。

　　（3）轴心抗拉强度ft：反映混凝土的抗拉能力。（二）混凝土的多轴强度

　　上面所讲混凝土强度，均是指单向受力条件下所得到的强度。但实际上，结构物很少处于单向受力状态。工程上经常遇到的都是一些双向或三向受力的复合应力状态。用单轴应力状态的强度表示实际结构中混凝土的破坏条件（强度准则）不合理的，特别是对非杆件结构进行数值分析时，其强度准则的选取直接影响计算结果的精确度和正确性。所以研究复合应力状态下的混凝土强度条件，对进行合理设计是极为重要的。但由于测试技术的复杂性和试验结果的离散性，目前还未能建立起完整的强度理论。根据现有的试验结果，可以得出以下几点结论：

　　（1）双向受压的强度：双向受压的混凝土的强度比单向受压的强度为高。也就是说，一向强度随另一向压应力的增加而增加。

　　（2）双向受拉的强度：双向受拉的的混凝土强度与单向受拉强度基本一样。也就是说，混凝土一向抗拉强度基本上与另一向拉应力的大小无关。　（3）一向受拉一向受压的强度：一向受拉一向受压的混凝土抗压强度随另一向的拉应力的增加而降低。或者说，混凝土的抗拉强度随另一向的压应力的增加而降低。

　　（4）正应力及剪应力下的强度：在单轴正应力σ及剪应力τ共同作用下，当为压应力时，混凝土的抗剪强度有所提高，但当压应力过大时，混凝土的抗剪强度反有所降低。为拉应力时降低抗剪强度。

　　三向受力下的混凝土强度规律与双向受力时基本相同。

五、混凝土的变形

（一）混凝土的受力变形　

1．混凝土的应力—应变曲线

　　试验表明, 混凝土不论是受压或是受拉，破坏的过程本质上是由连续材料逐步变成不连续材料的过程，即混凝土的破坏是微裂缝的发展导致横向变形引起的。对横向变形加以约束，就可以限制微裂缝的发展，从而可提高混凝土的强度。约束混凝土可以提高混凝土的强度，也可以提高混凝土的变形能力。复合应力状态对混凝土强度的影响就在于此原因。“约束混凝土”可以提高混凝土的强度，但更值得注意的是可以提高混凝土的变形能力，配箍筋混凝土就起此效果。

　　随着混凝土强度的提高，峰值应力、应变有所增大。但下降段的坡度变陡，即应力下降相同幅度时变形越小，极限应变减小，塑性变差，破坏时脆性显著。加载速度较快时，强度提高，但极限应变将减小。2．混凝土的徐变及对混凝土结构的影响

　　徐变是混凝土在荷载长期持续作用下，应力不变，随着时间而增长的变形。

　　产生徐变的原因有：

　　（1）混凝土受力后，在应力不大的情况下，徐变缘于水泥石中的凝胶体产生的粘性流动（颗粒间的相对滑动）要延续一个很长的时间。（2）在应力较大的情况下，骨料和水泥石结合面裂缝的持续发展，导致徐变加大。

　　徐变对混凝土结构的不利影响：

　　（1）徐变作用会使结构的变形增大。

　　（2）在预应力混凝土结构中，它还会造成较大的预应力损失。

　　（3）徐变还会使构件中混凝土和钢筋之间发生应力重分布，导致混凝土应力减小，钢筋应力增大，使得理论计算产生误差。

　　一定要注意避免高应力下的非线性徐变。

　（二）混凝土的收缩及对混凝土结构的影响

　　混凝土在空气中结硬时，由于温、湿度及本身化学变化的影响，体积随时间增长而减小的现象称为收缩。

　　收缩对混凝土结构的不利影响：（1）收缩受到约束时会使混凝土产生拉应力，甚至使混凝土开裂。（2）混凝土收缩还会使预应力混凝土构件产生预应力损失。混凝土的收缩会带来危害，而膨胀变形一般是有利的，不予讨论。

　　六、钢筋与混凝土的粘结

　　1．钢筋与混凝土之间的粘结力

　　粘结力是在钢筋和混凝土接触面上阻止两者相对滑移的剪应力。粘结力主要由三部分组成：

　　（1）水泥凝胶体与钢筋表面之间的化学胶着力（胶结力）；

　　（2）混凝土收缩，将钢筋紧紧握固而产生的摩擦力（摩阻力）; （3）钢筋表面凹凸不平与混凝土之间产生的机械咬合力。

　　光面钢筋在粘结应力达到粘结强度破坏时，其表面有明显的纵向摩擦痕迹。变形钢筋，接近破坏时，首先由于横肋挤压混凝土引起的环向或斜向拉应力而使钢筋周围混凝土开裂，最终因肋间混凝土剪切强度不够，将被挤碎带出，发生沿肋外径圆柱面的剪切破坏。其粘结强度比光面钢筋要大得多。

　　2．影响粘结强度的主要因素

　　（1）混凝土强度。粘结强度都随混凝土强度等级的提高而提高，粘结强度基本上与混凝土的抗拉强度成正比例的关系。

　　（2）钢筋的表面状况。钢筋表面形状对粘结强度有影响，变形钢筋的粘结强度大于光圆钢筋。

　　（3）混凝土保护层厚度和钢筋的净间距。增大保护层厚度（相对保护层厚度c/d），保持一定的钢筋间距（钢筋净距s与钢筋直径d的比值s/d），可以提高外围混凝土的抗劈裂能力，有利于粘结强度的充分发挥。也能使粘结强度得到相应的提高。

　　七、钢筋的锚固与连接

　　1．钢筋的锚固

　　根据钢筋受拉应力达到屈服强度时，钢筋才被拔出的条件确定出基本锚固（埋入）长度la。

　　为了保证钢筋在混凝土中锚固可靠，避免粘结遭到破坏，而使钢筋被拔出发生锚固破坏，设计时应该使钢筋在混凝土中有足够的锚固（埋入）长度la。分析表明，钢筋强度越高，直径越粗，混凝土强度越低，则要求锚固长度越长。

　　2．钢筋的连接

　　钢筋连接方法主要有：（1）绑扎连接。绑扎连接是在钢筋搭接处用铁丝绑扎而成。是最常用和最简便的钢筋接长方法。但可靠性不够好。

　　（2）机械连接。采用螺旋或挤压套筒连接。此法简单、可靠。

　　（3）焊接。焊接有闪光对焊和电弧焊搭接。焊接质量有保证时，此法较可靠。

　　3．保证钢筋的锚固与连接的构造措施

　　（1）对不同等级的混凝土和钢筋，要保证最小搭接长度ll和锚固长度la；

　　（2）必须满足钢筋最小间距和混凝土保护层最小厚度的要求；

　　（3）在钢筋的搭接接头范围内应加密箍筋；（4）在钢筋端部采用设置弯钩等机械锚固措施。对光面钢筋一定要加弯钩。

第2章 钢筋混凝土结构设计计算原则

   基本概念：

　　一、结构的功能要求

　　结构设计的目的是在现有的技术基础上，用最经济的手段，使得所设计的结构能够满足如下三个方面的功能要求：安全性、适用性和耐久性。

　　上述功能要求概括起来称为结构的可靠性，结构的可靠性是指结构在规定的时间（设计基准期）内，在规定的条件（正常设计、正常施工、正常使用和正常维护）下，完成预定功能的能力。

　　结构的可靠性和结构的经济性常常是相互矛盾的。比如在相同荷载作用下，要提高混凝土结构的可靠性，一般可以采用加大截面尺寸、增加钢筋用量或提高材料强度等措施，但是这将使建筑物的造价提高，导致经济效益下降。

　　二、结构功能的极限状态

　　结构的极限状态是指整个结构或结构的一部分超过某一特定状态就不能满足设计规定的某一功能要求，此特定状态称为该功能的极限状态。极限状态分为以下两大类。

　　1．承载能力极限状态

　　这种极限状态对应于结构或构件达到最大承载能力或不适于继续承载的变形。

　　承载能力极限状态是关于安全性功能要求的，所以满足承载能力极限状态的要求，是结构设计的首要任务，因为这关系到结构能否安全的问题，一旦失效，后果严重，所以应具有较高的可靠度水平。

　　2．正常使用极限状态

　　这种极限状态对应于结构或构件达到影响正常使用或耐久性能的某项规定限值。

　　正常使用极限状态是关于适用性和耐久性功能要求的，当结构或构件达到正常使用极限状态时，虽然会影响结构的使用性、耐久性或使人们的心理感觉无法承受，但—般不会造成生命财产的重大损失。所以正常使用极限状态设计的可靠度水平允许比承载能力极限状态的可靠度适当降低。

　三、结构抗力

　　结构抗力是指整个结构或构件承受内力和变形的能力(如构件的承载力、抗裂度和刚度等)，用“R”来表示。

　　在实际工程中，由于施工水平造成了材料强度的离散性、构件几何特征(尺寸偏差、局部缺陷等)的不定性，抗力计算模式也存在着不定性(如并非绝对轴心受压柱而作为轴心受压柱来计算等)，因此，由这些因素决定的结构抗力亦是一个随机变量。

　四、作用及作用效应

　　1．结构的作用

　　所谓“作用”，就是使结构产生内力和变形(应力和应变) 的所有原因。

　　(1)当以力的形式作用于结构上时，称为直接作用，习惯上称为结构的荷载。例如，结构自重、楼面上的人群及物品重、风压力、雪压力、土压力等等。

　　(2)当以变形形式作用于结构上时，称为间接作用，习惯上称为结构的外加变形或约束变形，例如，地震、基础沉降、混凝土收缩、温度变形、焊接变形等。

　　作用按其随时间的变异性和出现的可能性不同，可分为三类：

　　(1)永久作用G：作用在结构上，其值不随时间变化，或其变化与平均值相比可以忽略不计者，例如结构自重、土重等荷载。

　　(2)可变作用Q：作用在结构上，其值随时间变化，而且其变化与平均值相比不可忽略不计者，如吊车荷载、楼面堆放荷载及人群荷载、静水压力、风荷载等可变荷载。

　　(3)偶然作用A：在设计基准期内不一定出现，但它一旦出现，其量值很大且持续时间较短，如地震、爆炸、撞击等偶然荷载。

　　2．作用效应

　　作用效应是指在各种作用因素的作用下，于结构构件内所产生的内力和变形(如轴力、弯矩、扭矩、挠度、裂缝等)，用“S”来表示。

　　由于结构的作用是随着时间、地点和各种条件的改变而变化的，是一个不确定变量，所以由作用所决定的作用效应S一般说来也是一个随机变量。由于它的的统计规律与荷载的统计规律是一致的，因此，一般只须研究荷载的变异情况。

　　结构的可靠性就是取决于结构抗力R和荷载效应S之间的相互关系。

　五、概率极限状态设计法

　　1．极限状态方程

　　一般可简单的把影响结构可靠性的因素归纳为荷载效应S和结构抗力R两个相互独立的随机变量，以荷载效应S和结构抗力R两个基本随机变量来描述结构的极限状态，则极限状态函数（或称功能函数）为：

　　Z=g（R，S）=R–S

　　因R、S是随机变量，所以功能函数Z也是随机变量。

　　显然，当Z＞0时，结构可靠；Z＜0时，结构失效；Z=0时，结构处于极限状态。则极限状态方程为：Z=g（R，S）=R–S=0

　　2．可靠概率ps

　　结构能够完成预定功能（R＞S）的概率即为“可靠概率”ps，它用来反映结构的可靠程度，即可靠度。结构的可靠度就是指结构在规定的时间内，在规定的条件下，完成预定功能的概率，其是结构可靠性的概率度量。

　　3．失效概率pf

　结构不能完成预定功能（R＜S）的概率为“失效概率”pf，很显然pf +ps＝1，失效概率与可靠概率互补。pf小，ps就大，所以pf能够反映结构的可靠程度。

　　4．可靠指标β

　　β与pf之间存在着相应的关系，β大则pf小，β小则pf大。即β越大，结构可靠性越高，因此，β和pf一样，可作为衡量结构可靠性的一个指标，且称之为结构的“可靠指标”。

　　5. 概率极限状态设计法的基本方法

　　设计要求：β ≥ βT

　　目标可靠指标βT的大小直接影响到结构的可靠与经济问题。其取值主要应考虑：

　　（1）结构的安全级别。结构安全级别愈高，表明结构愈重要，一旦结构失效，对生命财产的危害程度以及对社会的影响就愈大，因此，可靠指标就应愈大。

　　（2）结构的破坏性质，延性破坏的构件在破坏前有明显的预兆，构件破坏性质较好。而脆性破坏的构件在破坏前无明显的预兆，一旦破坏，其承载力急剧降低甚至断裂。所以，延性破坏的构件的可靠指标可稍低于脆性破坏构件的可靠指标。

　　（3）结构设计的极限状态，承载能力极限状态是关系到结构构件是否安全的根本问题，而正常使用极限状态的验算则是在满足承载能力极限状态的前提下进行的，只影响到结构构件的正常适用性和耐久性。所以，承载能力极限状态下的可靠指标应高于正常使用极限状态下的可靠指标。

　　六、荷载的代表值

　　荷载的取值大小影响结构的可靠性与经济性，所以荷载应根据不同极限状态的设计要求，规定不同的量值，即荷载代表值。水工建筑物的荷载则按《水工建筑物荷载设计规范》(DL5077-1997)取用。

　　1．荷载标准值Gk，Qk

　　荷载标准值是指结构构件在使用期间正常情况下可能出现的最大荷载值。一般取具有95％的保证率荷载值作为荷载标准值，即实际荷载超过设计时取用的荷载标准值的可能性只有5％。

　　2．可变荷载准永久值Qq

　　所谓准永久值是指可变荷载在结构设计基准期内经常作用的那一部分荷载，它对结构的影响类似于永久荷载。

　　可变荷载的准永久值Qq可由可变荷载标准值Qk乘以相应的长期组合系数ρ(≤1)得出，即：Qq =ρQk。不同的可变荷载随机变化特征不同，其ρ值就不同。

　　3．可变荷载组合值Qc

　　考虑到各种可变荷载不可能同时以其最大值（标准值）出现，而在荷载组合时，取由标准值上乘以小于1.0的组合系数得到的荷载组合值。

　　七、材料强度的代表值

　　材料强度也是随机变量，取值直接影响到结构的可靠与经济。材料强度的代表值主要是指材料强度标准值，材料强度标准值是指使用期间正常情况下可能出现的最小值。材料强度的标准值由材料强度概率按具有95％的保证率来确定，即材料的实际强度小于设计时取用的强度标准值的可能性只有5％。

设计时，材料强度尽可能取低些，荷载尽可能取大些，才能保证所设计的结构的可靠性。其中，材料强度可以查表，但荷载需按规范要求自己计算。　

八、极限状态计算的实用设计表达式

　　1．承载能力极限状态设计表达式

　　基本组合是持久状况或短暂状况下永久荷载与可变荷载的效应组合。

　　对于基本组合，承载能力极限状态设计表达式为

　　γ0ψS≤R/γd S =ΣγGi CGi Gki +ΣγQj CQj Qkj

　　R=R（fc，fy，ak）= R（fc/γck，fyk/γs，ak）

　　式中 γ0——结构重要性系数，对结构安全级别为Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ级的结构构件，分别取为1.1、1.0及0.9；建筑物的重要性不同，其结构构件的安全级别就不同，要求目标可靠指标也不同。为了反映这种要求，在计算荷载效应时，可将其值乘以结构重要性系数γ0。通过γ0来调整荷载效应S，从而实现建筑物的重要性不同，可靠度水准的要求不同。

　　ψ——设计状况系数，对应于持久状况、短暂状况、偶然状况，分别取为1.0、0.95及0.85；结构在施工、运行、检修不同时期可能出现不同的结构体系、荷载及环境条件，失效后果也不同，所以，其可靠度水准要求也就不同。与γ0一样，ψ也是来调整荷载效应S的。γ0、ψ取大些，可靠度水平就高。上述三种设计状况均应进行承载能力极限状态设计。对持久状况尚应进行正常使用极限状态设计；对短暂状况可根据具体情况决定是否要进行正常使用极限状态设计，而且只有短期组合；对偶然状况则可不进行正常使用极限状态设计。

　　γG、γQ——分别为永久荷载和可变荷载的荷载分项系数。因荷载标准值按95%的保证率取值，则实际荷载仍有可能超过预定的标准值。为了考虑这一最不利情况，在承载能力极限状态设计表达式中还引入一个荷载分项系数（一般都大于1，个别情况也可小于1）。荷载分项系数主要是用来考虑实际荷载超过标准值的可能性。在水工建筑物设计中它实质上就是“超载系数”，但也适当反映了结构可靠度要求。

　　荷载标准值乘以相应的荷载分项系数后即为荷载设计值。永久荷载和可变荷载的设计值可分别记为γGGk及γQQk。

　　γG、γQ由《水工建筑物荷载设计规范》并按《水工混凝土结构设计规范》的规定取用。变异性小的荷载，取值可靠，误差小，考虑超载等影响的荷载分项系数就可以定小些。所以永久荷载的分项系数就应小于可变荷载。一般是γG =1.05，γQ =1.2。在承载能力极限状态计算时，荷载用比标准值更大的设计值，以确保安全。但荷载不是任何时候取大些都不利，如大坝的倾覆破坏，此时自重荷载起有利作用，设计中就应取小些。即当永久荷载的效应对结构有利时，γG可取为0.95。当然，可变荷载甚至就可以不计入。

　　γc、γs——分别为混凝土和钢筋的材料性能分项系数。由于材料的离散性及不可避免的施工误差等因素可能造成材料的实际强度低于其强度标准值，因此，在承载能力极限状态计算中引入混凝土强度分项系数γc及钢筋强度分项系数γs 来考虑这一不利影响。

　　材料强度标准值fck 、 fyk除以相应的大于1的材料性能（强度）分项系数后，即为材料强度设计值fc = fck/γc 、fy = fyk/γs。在承载能力极限状态计算时，材料强度用比标准值更小的设计值，以确保安全。

　　γd——结构系数；在承载能力极限状态设计中，荷载效应计算模式的不定性、几何尺寸的不定性和结构构件抗力计算模式的不定性，以及未能由荷载分项系数和材料强度分项系数反映的其它各种变异因素，则统一由结构系数来考虑。

　　在水工结构设计中，结构系数直接与结构构件的可靠度水平有关。　2．正常使用极限状态设计表达式

　　正常使用极限状态的验算是要保证结构构件在正常使用条件下，抗裂度、裂缝宽度和变形满足规范的相应要求。

　　由于荷载的作用时间长短对抗裂验算的要求、裂缝宽度和变形的大小有影响，因此在正常使用极限状态验算时，应按荷载效应的短期组合及长期组合分别进行。

　　（1）短期组合

　　所谓短期组合，即持久状况或短暂状况下，包括短期作用在内的全部可变荷载的效应与永久荷载的效应的组合。验算表达式为

　　γ0Ss（Gk，Qk，fk，ak）≤c1式中 c1——结构的短期验算功能限值（裂缝宽度或挠度）；

　　Ss（·）——荷载效应短期组合时的功能函数；

　　（2）长期组合

　　所谓长期组合，即持久状况下，可变荷载中长期作用的那部分荷载（即荷载准永久值）的效应与永久荷载的效应的组合。验算表达式为

　　γ0Sl（Gk，ρQk，fk，ak）≤c2

　　式中 c2——结构的长期功能限值（裂缝宽度或挠度）；　Sl（·）——荷载效应长期组合时的功能函数；

　　ρ——可变荷载标准值的长期组合系数，可参照有关荷载规范的规定及工程经验取用。

　　正常使用极限状态设计的失效后果没有承载能力极限状态严重，可靠度水平允许比承载能力极限状态的适当降低。所以，与承载能力极限状态相比，正常使用极限状态验算时的各种参数的保证率可适当降低。从上可以知道，正常使用极限状态验算时，材料强度采用标准值而不用设计值，即材料分项系数取为1.0; 荷载也采用标准值，即荷载分项系数一律取为1.0；设计状况系数ψ和结构系数γd也取为1.0。但结构重要性系数γ0要考虑。这样，通过各种参数的不同取值体现可靠度水准的不同。

第3章 钢筋混凝土受弯构件

正截面承载力计算:

钢筋混凝土受弯构件会在弯矩作用下，由于正截面，即垂直裂缝的发展而导致承载力不足而破坏，因此必须通过合理的配筋设计（包括计算和构造两个方面）来确保正截面的受弯承载力，并改善其破坏性质。

基本构造:

构造要求为结构构件的初步设计提供了参考依据。也是保证结构构件良好受力工作性能的重要条件。

一、受弯构件的截面尺寸

受弯构件的截面尺寸一般可根据下列要求确定：

1．刚度要求：受弯构件的高度h常根据刚度要求，即变形限制条件对跨高比提出的控制而初步确定，一般的梁高可取为跨度l0的1/8～1/12；一般的受力板厚可取为板跨度l0的1/12～1/35，这样基本可保证构件的变形大小在规范允许的范围之内。截面的宽度b按高宽比h/b（对梁）或使用情况（对板）选择。

2．施工要求：尺寸取整，且符合建筑模数，以统一模板尺寸，节省施工费用且便于施工。

3．计算要求：通过计算，要满足对构件承载力、变形和裂缝控制的需要。

4．经济要求：最好使构件配筋率在经济配筋率范围内。

否则，就应进行合理调整。

二、混凝土保护层

混凝土保护层c是指外排纵向受力钢筋外表面至构件边缘的距离。

在钢筋混凝土构件中，为了保证钢筋不受外界因素作用而引起锈蚀，并使钢筋与混凝土牢固粘结在一起，钢筋外面必须有足够的混凝土保护层。保护层厚度主要与环境条件有关，规范规定实际混凝土保护层应不小于限定的最小值。

一定要明确纵向受力钢筋合力点（中心点）至构件边缘的距离a与保护层厚度c的联系与区别（课本图3-3）。只要概念清楚，根据几何条件就可判断两者关系。

三、梁内纵向受力钢筋

梁内纵向受力钢筋的作用是承受弯矩（即为抗弯纵筋），在梁受拉区布置纵向受拉钢筋以承担拉力，形成单筋截面（课本图3-3a）；有时由于弯矩较大，在受压区亦布置钢筋（即为纵向受压钢筋），协助混凝土共同承担压力，形成双筋截面（课本图3-3b）。

钢筋直径

为了保证钢筋骨架的刚度，梁内纵向受力钢筋的直径不能太细。同时为了防止混凝土裂缝过大和钢筋在混凝土中可能滑动，也不宜采用很粗的钢筋。选用两种不同直径的钢筋时，应使两种钢筋直径相差2mm以上，以便施工时容易识别，但也不宜超过4～6mm，以使截面受力均匀。

当受力钢筋一排放不下而需要排成上下两排时，应当先将钢筋布在下排，然后将剩余的钢筋放在上排，这样布置对截面受力比较有利（增大抗弯力臂），也可以采用并筋配置方式。注意使上下两排钢筋对齐，以免影响混凝土浇筑。要注意单筋、双筋截面和单排、双排布筋的不同。

梁内钢筋根据不同的需要，常设有抗弯钢筋（纵向受力钢筋）、抗剪腹筋（箍筋和斜筋）和构造钢筋（架立筋及腰筋等）。

四、板内钢筋

1．受力钢筋

一般厚度的板中受力钢筋的直径通常采用6～12mm，厚板的受力钢筋直径可用12～25mm，也有采用更粗的钢筋。

为了使板受力均匀及避免混凝土局部破坏，板中受力钢筋的间距s（即钢筋中线到中线之间的距离）不能太大。板中钢筋直径宜小些，配置密些，但为保证施工质量，板中受力钢筋也不能太密，间距不应小于70mm，即每米板宽中最多放14根钢筋。

2．分布钢筋

在板中，垂直于受力钢筋还要布置分布钢筋（课本图3-4）。其作用是：①将板面荷载均匀地传给受力钢筋；②固定受力钢筋的位置；③抵抗和分散由温度变化和混凝土收缩在垂直于板的跨度方向所产生的拉应力，因为此方向受力钢筋不起作用。因板厚有限，分布钢筋一定要布置在受力钢筋内侧，以便增大截面抗弯力臂。另外，分布钢筋的最大和最小间距的要求与受力钢筋基本相同，但作为构造钢筋一般不要配的太多太强。

基本概念:

一、受弯构件的正截面受力破坏特征

试验表明，对于截面尺寸和混凝土强度等级一定的受弯构件，其正截面的破坏特征主要与钢筋数量有关，可分三种情况：

1．适筋破坏情况

配筋量适中的梁，在开始破坏时，某一裂缝截面的受拉钢筋的应力首先达到屈服强度，发生很大的塑性变形，有一根或几根裂缝迅速开展并向上延伸，受压区面积迅速减小，迫使混凝土边缘应变达到极限压应变，混凝土被压碎，构件即告破坏，如课本图3-7(a)。在破坏前，构件所能承受的荷载增加不多，即截面承载力没有显著变化，而裂缝和挠度却有显著的增大（课本图3-8），也就是构件的延性较好。这种有明显破坏预兆的破坏，属于塑性破坏（延性破坏）。构件破坏时，受压边缘混凝土的压应变εc=εcu=0.0033；受拉钢筋的应变εs＞εy=fy/Es，应力σs= fy。

适筋受弯构件的破坏源于受拉钢筋首先屈服，因此，提高混凝土强度等级对增大受弯构件正截面受弯承载力的作用不显著。适当提高钢筋强度等级或加大配筋率对增大受弯构件正截面受弯承载力的作用比较显著。

适筋受弯构件正截面工作有明显的三个阶段特点（课本图3-6）：

从开始加载直到受拉边缘混凝土达到极限拉应变εtu（拉区下部一定范围的应力达到混凝土的抗拉强度ft）处于即将开裂的瞬间、即第Ⅰ阶段末尾Ⅰa 状态，为第Ⅰ阶段。第Ⅰ阶段末尾Ⅰa状态是计算受弯构件抗裂弯矩Mcr时所采用的应力阶段。

从受拉边缘混凝土开裂直到受拉钢筋达到屈服强度fy（应变εs=εy=fy/Es）、即第Ⅱ阶段末尾Ⅱa状态，为第Ⅱ阶段。第Ⅱ阶段是计算受弯构件正常使用阶段变形和裂缝宽度时所依据的应力阶段。

    从受拉钢筋屈服直到受压边缘混凝土的压应变达到极限压应变εcu（此时受拉钢筋的应变εs＞εy=fy/Es，应力σs= fy）、即第Ⅲ阶段末尾Ⅲa状态，为第Ⅲ阶段。第Ⅲ阶段末尾Ⅲa状态是按极限状态方法计算受弯构件正截面承载力Mu时所依据的应力阶段。

2．超筋破坏情况

当梁的配筋量较多，在受拉区混凝土出现裂缝之前截面的应力情况，基本上与适筋梁相同。开裂后，由于钢筋配置较多，粘结约束力强，使得裂缝细而密，裂缝向上延伸的也较慢，因而破坏时钢筋应力达不到屈服强度，构件的破坏主要是受压区混凝土应变达到弯曲极限压应变，混凝土被压碎而引起突然破坏，如课本图3-7(b)。超筋构件的承载力控制于受压混凝土的抗压强度及截面大小，过多的钢筋并不能增加截面承载力，反而使受拉钢筋的强度得不到充分发挥。超筋构件承载力虽很高，但在混凝土压坏前变形较小（课本图3-8），梁在My后基本没有第Ⅲ阶段，破坏无明显预兆，呈脆性特征，对结构的安全不利，且配筋不能充分发挥作用，经济性不好，所以应避免采用。构件破坏时，受压边缘混凝土的压应变εc=εcu；受拉钢筋的应变εs＜εy，应力σs＜fy。

超筋受弯构件的破坏源于受压区混凝土首先压碎，因此，提高混凝土强度等级或加大截面尺寸对增大其正截面受弯承载力的作用显著，即可避免超筋破坏。

3．少筋破坏情况

当梁的配筋量较少时，一旦受拉区混凝土出现裂缝，钢筋的拉应力很快达到屈服强度，甚至超过屈服强度而进入钢筋的强化阶段，如果钢筋数量极少，钢筋也有可能被拉断。虽然混凝土还没有被压碎，由于钢筋的变形很大，引起构件的裂缝和挠度都很大，构件已经不能正常工作，因此可认为构件已处于破坏状态，破坏时往往只有一条裂缝。构件一开裂，裂缝就快速向上发展，导致构件突然断裂破坏（残存的压区很小），可认为是“一裂即坏”，无第Ⅱ阶段受力过程。破坏弯矩接近于开裂弯矩，若考虑钢筋的后续承载能力（实际因变形过大，已不能使用），破坏弯矩甚至低于开裂弯矩，承载力很低，控制于混凝土的抗拉强度及截面大小，混凝土的抗压能力没有得到发挥，破坏过程也很短，所以也属脆性破坏，一定要避免采用。构件破坏时，受压边缘混凝土的压应变εc＜εcu；受拉钢筋的应变εs＞εy，应力σs＞fy。

少筋受弯构件的破坏源于配筋太少，因此，加大配筋率对增大其正截面受弯承载力的作用显著，即可避免少筋破坏。

综上所述，受弯构件正截面的破坏特征随配筋量多少而变化的规律是：①配筋量太少时，配筋不起多大作用，承载力很小，破坏弯矩接近于开裂弯矩，其大小取决于混凝土的抗拉强度及截面大小，破坏呈脆性；②配筋量过多时，虽具有较大的承载力，但配筋不能充分发挥作用，构件的破坏弯矩取决于混凝土的抗压强度及截面大小，破坏呈脆性。③配筋量适当时，具有适当的承载力，钢筋和混凝土都能充分发挥作用，破坏呈塑性，是理想的设计方案。因此，合理的设计应保证发生适筋破坏。也就是在工程设计中既要考虑承载力，也要考虑破坏时的变形能力，两者具有同样的重要意义。

分析表明：构件开裂之前钢筋应力是很低的，对抗裂贡献是很有限的，钢筋是在开裂后才有效发挥作用。

二、正截面受弯承载力计算方法的基本假定

为了建立正截面承载力计算的力学模型，必须对构件的受力特性作出基本假定。这些假定首先应该符合试验结果。然后考虑能简化极限状态的应力分布图形，即给出明确的力学模型，以方便承载力计算公式的建立。钢筋混凝土构件正截面受弯承载力的计算方法，有以下四项基本假定：

（1）平截面假定。构件正截面在弯曲变形以后仍保持一平面。试验表明，在各级荷载作用下截面上的应变保持为直线分布，也就是说任一点的应变与该点到中和轴的距离成正比。这一假定提供了变形协调的几何关系。

（2）截面受拉区混凝土不参与工作。达到承载能力极限状态时，受拉区混凝土作用相对来说很小，可以忽略不计。

（3）受压区混凝土的应力应变关系采用理想化的应力应变曲线。

（4）有明显屈服点的钢筋（热轧钢筋、冷拉钢筋等），其应力应变关系可以简化为理想的弹塑性曲线。

三、适筋和超筋破坏的界限条件

1．界限破坏

在适筋梁和超筋梁破坏之间存在着一种界限状态，这种状态的特征是由于受拉钢筋较多，使得其应力增长缓慢，在受拉钢筋的应力达到屈服强度的同时，受压区混凝土边缘的压应变恰好同时达到极限压应变而破坏，即为界限破坏。此时，σs= fy，εc=εcu=0.0033，εs=εy=fy/Es。

界限破坏状态时截面相对受压区高度称为相对界限受压区高度ξb，可利用平截面假定所提供的变形协调条件求得。

2．超、适筋判断方法

随配筋率ρ的增加，破坏时的受压区高度x增大，也即相对受压区高度ξ随配筋率ρ的增加而增大。因此，可知若ξ＞ξb，进入为超筋范围，即为超筋破坏；ξ＝x/h0≤ξb，则为最小配筋率要求。

复习指导：

教材本章的例题一定要熟练掌握，尤其是单筋矩形截面承载力的计算要熟练掌握。钢筋混凝土结构设计计算的主要和基本概念都在本章提出，对以后各部分的学习具有指导意义，一定要重点掌握。

第4章  钢筋混凝土受弯构件斜截面承载力计算

钢筋混凝土受弯构件在弯矩和剪力共同作用下，会由于斜截面，即斜裂缝的发展而导致斜截面承载力不足而破坏。为此就需要在梁内设置足够的抗剪钢筋，即与梁轴线垂直的箍筋和与主拉应力方向平行的斜筋。斜筋常利用正截面承载力多余的纵向钢筋弯起而成，所以又称弯起钢筋。箍筋与弯起钢筋通称腹筋。从而形成有腹筋梁。

基本构造:

一、箍筋的构造

为了保证箍筋能有效发挥抗剪作用；使构件具有较好的延性；钢筋骨架的有足够刚度，避免施工时变形错位；能可靠地约束受压钢筋。规范对箍筋的形状和肢数、箍筋最小直径、箍筋的最大间距、箍筋的布置等提出了具体要求。特别是有受压钢筋时，希望箍筋能在多方向约束受压钢筋，对箍筋肢数和纵筋根数相对关系的要求，就是基于这点。

箍筋的作用具有综合优势，因此相对于斜筋，箍筋必须优先配置。

二、弯起钢筋（斜筋）的构造

选择钢筋弯起时，梁底排位于箍筋转角处的纵向受力钢筋不应弯起（也不能切断），而应直通至梁端部，以便和箍筋扎成钢筋骨架。弯起钢筋（斜筋）两端应有足够的直线段锚固长度。

单独设置抗剪斜筋时，此时应将斜筋布置成如课本图4-30（a）所示吊筋型式，俗称鸭筋，不宜采用如课本图4-30(b)所示的浮筋。斜筋两端均锚固在受压区内, 并有足够的直线段锚固长度。

 

三、架立钢筋

在箍筋的四角必须沿梁全长配置纵向钢筋以形成骨架，在没有纵向受压筋的区段，则应补设架立钢筋。

四、腰筋及拉筋

当梁高超过700mm时，为防止由于温度变形及混凝土收缩等原因使梁中部产生竖向裂缝，在梁的两侧中部应设置纵向构造钢筋，称为腰筋。两侧腰筋之间用拉筋联系起来，以约束其变位(课本图4-28示)。实际也相当于对纵向钢筋最大间距的限制。

在受弯构件内，一般由纵向钢筋（受力和构造筋）和腹筋组成钢筋骨架。

五、纵向受力钢筋在支座中的锚固

为避免支座附近出现斜裂缝后，使得与斜裂缝相交的纵筋应力会突然增大，导致纵筋与周围混凝土之间的粘结有可能遭到破坏而出现粘结裂缝，纵筋在支座内发生滑移，甚至被从混凝土中拨出引起锚固破坏。因此规范根据不同的受力状态（课本图4-26、4-27示），对纵向受力钢筋伸入支座的锚固长度提出了具体要求，受的拉力越大，锚固长度越长。设计时一定要遵守。

基本概念：

一、有腹筋梁的斜截面受剪承载力研究

（一）斜截面抗力组成分析

起始于梁下边缘的弯剪斜裂缝或起始于梁中部的腹剪斜裂缝不断发展会导致发生教材图示的斜截面破坏。

荷载在斜截面AB上引起的弯矩为MA，剪力为VA，而在斜截面AB上的抵抗力有以下几部分：①纵向钢筋承担的拉力T；②斜裂缝上端余留截面混凝土承担的压力C；③余留截面混凝土承担的剪力VC；④纵向钢筋承担的剪力Vd，斜裂缝出现后，纵向钢筋犹如销栓一样将裂缝两侧的混凝土联系起来，称“销栓作用”；⑤斜裂缝两侧混凝土发生相对错动产生的骨料咬合力Va；⑥箍筋的拉力Vsv；⑦斜筋的拉力Tsb。

由力的平衡条件可得平衡VA的抗剪力。

 (二)受弯构件的受剪破坏形态

    根据试验研究，受弯构件的斜截面受剪破坏，有以下三种主要破坏形式。

    1．斜拉破坏

    当剪跨比λ较大（一般λ＞3，均布荷载下为跨高比l/h＞9），且腹筋数量配置很少时，常为斜拉破坏。这种破坏现象是斜裂缝一出现就很快形成一条主要斜裂缝，腹筋的应力也很快达到屈服，腹筋不能起到限制斜裂缝开展的作用，导致斜裂缝迅速向受压边缘发展，直至将整个截面裂通，使构件劈裂为两部分而破坏，如教材图4-6(a)所示。其特点是整个破坏过程急速而突然，破坏荷载比斜裂缝形成时的荷载增加不多。斜拉破坏的原因是由于余留截面上混凝土剪应力的增长，使余留截面上的主拉应力超过了混凝土的抗拉强度。相当少筋破坏。

    2．剪压破坏

当剪跨比λ适中（一般1＜λ≤3，均布荷载下为跨高比3＜l/h≤9，且腹筋数量配置适当时，常为剪压破坏。这种破坏现象是当荷载增加到一定程度时，多条斜裂缝中的一条形成主要斜裂缝，该主要斜裂缝向斜上方伸展，但由于腹筋的存在，限制了斜裂缝的开展，使受压区高度逐渐减小，荷载仍能有较大的增长，直到腹筋屈服不再能控制斜裂缝开展，斜裂缝快速发展，导致斜裂缝顶端的混凝土被压碎而破坏，如教材图4-6(b)所示。它的特点是破坏过程比斜拉破坏缓慢些，破坏时的荷载明显高于斜裂缝出现时的荷载。剪压破坏的原因是由于余留截面上混凝土的主压应力超过了混凝土在压力和剪力共同作用下的抗压强度。相当适筋破坏。

    3．斜压破坏

    当剪跨比λ较小时（一般λ≤1，均布荷载下为跨高比l/h≤3），或腹筋数量配置很多时，常为斜压破坏。斜裂缝出现后，沿支座向集中荷载处发展，支座反力与荷载间的混凝土形成一斜向受压短柱，随着荷载的增加，当主压应力超过了混凝土的抗压强度时，短柱被压碎而破坏，而腹筋应力达不到屈服，腹筋强度得不到充分利用。如教材图4-6(c)所示。它的特点是斜裂缝细而密，破坏时的荷载也明显高于斜裂缝出现时的荷载。斜压破坏的原因是由于主压应力超过了斜向受压短柱混凝土的抗压强度。相当超筋破坏。

上述三种主要破坏形态，就它们的受剪承载力而言，斜拉破坏最低，剪压破坏较高，斜压破坏最高。但就其破坏性质而言，与正截面破坏相比，由于它们达到破坏荷载时的跨中挠度都不大，因而均属脆性破坏。

（三）影响斜截面受剪承载力的主要因素

    上述三种斜截面破坏形态和构件斜截面承载力有密切的关系。因此，凡影响破坏形态的因素也就影响梁的受剪承载力，其主要影响因素有：

    1．剪跨比λ

剪跨比λ是剪跨a和截面有效高度ho的比值，其中a为集中荷载作用点到支座截面或节点边缘的距离。

对梁顶直接施加集中荷载的梁，剪跨比λ是影响受剪承载力的主要因素。随着剪跨比λ的减少，破坏形态发生显著变化，斜截面受剪承载力有增高的趋势。一般来说，小剪跨比时，大多发生斜压破坏，受剪承载力很高；中等剪跨比时，大多发生剪压破坏，受剪承载力次之；大剪跨比时，大多发生斜拉破坏，受剪承载力很低。当剪跨比λ＞3以后，剪跨比对受剪承载力无显著的影响。

2．混凝土强度

    混凝土强度反映了混凝土的抗压强度和抗拉强度，因此，直接影响余留截面抵抗主拉应力和主压应力的能力。试验表明，受剪承载力随混凝土抗拉强度ft的提高而提高，两者基本呈线性关系。

3．纵筋配筋率ρ

    增加纵筋配筋率ρ可抑制斜裂缝向受压区的伸展，从而提高骨料咬合力，并加大了剪压区高度，使混凝土的抗剪能力提高，同时也提高了纵筋的销栓作用。总之，随着ρ的增大，梁的受剪承载力有所提高，但增幅不大。

4. 腹筋用量

配置腹筋是提高梁受剪承载力的有效措施。梁在斜裂缝发生之前，因混凝土变形协调影响，腹筋的应力很低，对阻止斜裂缝的出现几乎没有什么作用。但是当斜裂缝出现之后，和斜裂缝相交的腹筋，就能通过以下几个方面充分发挥其抗剪作用（课本图4-9）：

   （1）与斜裂缝相交的腹筋本身能承担很大一部分剪力。

   （2）腹筋能阻止斜裂缝开展过宽，延缓斜裂缝向上伸展，保留了更大的剪压区高度，从而提高了混凝土的受剪承载力Vc。

   （3）腹筋能有效地减少斜裂缝的开展宽度，提高斜截面上的骨料咬合力Va。 

   （4）箍筋可限制纵向钢筋的竖向位移，有效地阻止混凝土沿纵筋的撕裂，从而提高纵筋的“销栓作用”Vd。

    有腹筋梁的影响机理与无腹筋梁基本相同，最终破坏标志也类同。但由于腹筋的作用，受剪承载力提高，破坏性质得到改善。而且，剪跨比的影响权重相对无腹筋梁时有所下降。如剪跨比较大时，应是斜拉破坏，若腹筋用量很多时，由于腹筋的作用，就可能发生斜压破坏。但要注意：由于腹筋过多引起的斜压（超筋）破坏一定要避免。

       另外，轴向压力的存在，可有限度的提高构件的抗剪承载力，但提高作用是有限度的。而轴向拉力的存在，会降低构件的斜截面受剪承截力，但不影响腹筋的抗剪能力。

二、受弯构件的斜截面受弯承载力研究

   斜裂缝出现前，各垂直截面的纵向钢筋的拉力T由各垂直截面的弯矩所决定，因此，T的变化规律基本上与弯矩图一致。但从教材图4-19可看到，斜裂缝出现后，截面B处的钢筋拉力却要承受截面A的弯矩MA，而MA＞ MB。所以，开裂后穿过斜裂缝的纵筋的拉力突然增大。如果根据正截面弯矩变化切断或弯起钢筋，以达到合理利用时，所余的纵筋虽然能抵抗正截面的弯矩M（MB），但出现斜裂缝后，要承担的弯矩加大了，就有可能抵抗不了加大了的弯矩M斜（MA），就带来了斜截面抗弯问题。

（一）抵抗弯矩图的绘制 

    抵抗弯矩图又称材料图，简称MR图，就是以各截面实际纵向受拉钢筋所能承受的弯矩为纵坐标，以相应的截面位置为横坐标，作出的弯矩图。图形上的各纵坐标就是各截面实际能够抵抗的弯矩值，它可根据截面实有的纵筋截面面积求得。抵抗弯矩图也就是由各截面尺寸和钢筋用量所决定的正截面极限弯矩Mu（也即抵抗弯矩MR）沿构件长度的变化图形。从MR图 与荷载弯矩M图的关系比较知：

1．纵向钢筋的理论切断点

对正截面抗弯要求来说，一根钢筋的不需要点也称作该钢筋的“理论切断点”；因为这根钢筋既然是多余的，在理论上便可予以切断，但实际切断点还将伸过一定长度。

2．纵向钢筋的充分利用点

一根钢筋的强度需要充分发挥的点称作该钢筋的“充分利用点”，这根钢筋如果变化，就会导致该正截面抗弯要求不满足。

3．MR图 与荷载弯矩M图的关系

MR图代表梁的正截面的抗弯能力，因此在各个截面上都要求从不小于M，所以与设计弯矩M图是同一比例的MR图必须将M图包括在内，以满足受弯承载力的要求。另外，两者应是越贴近越好，表示钢筋强度的利用越充分，以满足经济要求。但也要注意不应使钢筋变化过于复杂。

4．钢筋切断时MR图的表示方法

　　钢筋切断反映在MR图上便是截面抵抗弯矩能力的突变。例如在教材图4-20中，由于F截面为钢筋④的“不需要点”，所以可在该截面处将钢筋④切断，该根钢筋即不再承受弯矩，MR图在F截面处就产生突变。同样，由于J截面为钢筋③的“不需要点”，MR图在J截面的突变反映钢筋③在该截面被切断；而MR图在K截面处的突变反映钢筋①（2Ф18）在该截面被切断。

5．钢筋弯起时MR图的表示方法  

因钢筋在弯起的过程中还多少能起一些正截面的抗弯作用，直到弯起钢筋穿过了梁的截面重心轴，基本上进入受压区，它的正截面抗弯作用才被认为完全消失。所以钢筋弯起后，引起抗弯能力的变化不是像切断钢筋时那样突然，而是逐渐下降。例如在教材图4-20中，根据抗剪要求纵筋②需在截面H处被弯下，而在截面I处，弯起筋穿过了梁的截面重心轴，进入受压区。所以在截面H、I之间MR图为斜线变化。

（二）保证斜截面受弯承载力的方法

    1．纵筋切断时如何保证斜截面的受弯承载力规范作出如下规定：

   （1）钢筋的实际切断点应伸过其理论切断点，延伸长度lw不小于20d（d为切断钢筋的直径）。

  （2）钢筋的充分利用点至该钢筋的实际切断点的距离ld还应满足下列要求：

   当 word/media/image1_1.png时，ld≥1.2la

   当 word/media/image2_1.png时， word/media/image3_1.png

式中 la——受拉钢筋的最小锚固长度；

在设计中必须同时满足lw，la的要求。

必须注意，纵向受拉钢筋不宜在受拉区切断，因为切断处钢筋面积骤减，引起混凝土拉应力突增，导致在切断钢筋截面过早地出现斜裂缝。此外，纵向受拉钢筋在受拉区锚固也不够可靠，如果锚固不好，就会影响斜截面受剪承载力。所以教材图4-22中钢筋①就应直通入支座。至于支座处承受负弯矩的纵向受拉钢筋（例如悬臂梁、伸臂简支梁和连续梁），为节约钢筋，必要时可按弯矩图的变化将理论上不需要的钢筋切断。

对于梁柱整体浇注结构，计算配筋所用的最大弯矩也选取支座边缘处的数值，教材图4-22A-A截面。是因为整浇的支座范围内，截面尺寸很大，不会在此内发生破坏。

2．纵筋弯起时如何保证斜截面的受弯承载力

在弯起纵筋时，为保证斜截面的受弯承载力，必须将该钢筋伸过其充分利用点至少0.5h0的地方才能弯起。

以上要求可能有时与腹筋最大间距的限制（教材表4-1）相矛盾，尤其在承受负弯矩的支座（教材图4-20）附近容易出现这个问题。其原因是由于用一根弯筋同时抗弯又抗剪而引起的。我们知道，腹筋最大间距的限制是为保证斜截面的受剪承载力，而a≥0.5h0的条件是为保证斜截面的受弯承载力。当两者发生矛盾时，可以在保证斜截面受弯承载力的前提下（即纵筋的弯起满足a≥0.5h0），用单独另设斜钢筋的方法来满足斜截面受剪承载力的要求。

基本公式和计算步骤：

 一、仅配箍筋梁的受剪承载力Vu的计算公式

教材图4-11表示一根仅配箍筋的简支梁，在出现斜裂缝BA后，取斜裂缝BA到支座的一段为隔离体。从隔离体上看出，临破坏时，斜截面受剪承载力的计算公式可采用两项相加的形式，即：

（1）对于承受一般荷载的矩形,T形和工形截面受弯构件(包括连续梁和约束梁)

                      word/media/image4_1.png

（2）对于承受以集中荷载为主(包括作用有多种荷载，且集中荷载对支座截面或节点边缘所产生的剪力值占总剪力值的75％以上的情况)的矩形截面独立梁（包括连续梁和约束梁）

二、同时配箍筋和弯起钢筋的梁受剪承载力Vu的计算公式

在配箍筋的梁斜截面承载力计算中，如果γd V＞Vcs，说明已配箍筋构件的抗剪力不够，这时（1）将箍筋加密或加粗；（2）增大构件截面尺寸；（3）提高混凝土强度等级。（4）将纵向钢筋弯起成为斜筋或加焊斜筋，都可以增加斜截面受剪承载力。在纵向钢筋有可能弯起的情况下，利用弯起的纵筋来抗剪可收到较好的经济效果。

一定要注意，虽斜筋差不多与斜裂缝垂直，而传力直接，但由于斜筋一般是由纵筋弯起而成，直径较粗，根数较少，受力不很均匀；箍筋虽然不与斜裂缝正交，但分布均匀。所以一般在斜截面计算时，总是先配以一定数量的箍筋，需要时再加配适当的斜筋。

此时计算公式为：word/media/image5_1.png

三、斜截面受剪承载力计算公式的适用条件

1．防止斜压破坏的条件

只要截面尺寸不过小或混凝土强度等级不太低，就不会因混凝土承载力不够而发生斜压破坏。为此需要满足：

（1）当hw／b≤4.0时，

对一般梁，word/media/image6_1.png

对T形或工形截面简支梁，当有实践经验时，

                       word/media/image7_1.png

   （2）当hw／b≥6.0（薄腹梁）时，

                    word/media/image8_1.png

不满足时，就应加大截面尺寸或提高混凝土强度等级。

2．防止斜拉破坏的条件

    如腹筋布置得过少过稀，即使计算上满足要求，仍可能出现斜截面受剪承载力不足而发生斜拉破坏。为此要求：

   （1）腹筋间距要求

如腹筋间距过大，有可能在两根腹筋之间出现不与腹筋相交的斜裂缝，这时腹筋便无从发挥作用（教材图4-15）。同时箍筋分布的疏密对斜裂缝开展宽度也有影响。采用较密的箍筋对抑制斜裂缝宽度有利。为此有必要对腹筋的最大间距smax作一限制，smax限值见教材表4-1。在任何情况下，腹筋的间距s不得大于教材表4-1中的smax 数值；同时，从支座算起第一根斜筋或第一根箍筋离开支座边缘的距离s1也不得大于smax。对斜筋(弯起钢筋)而言，间距s是指一根斜筋的下弯点到后一根斜筋的上弯点之间的梁轴投影距离。

（2）配箍率要求

    箍筋配置过少，一旦斜裂缝出现，由于箍筋的抗剪作用不足以替代斜裂缝发生前混凝土原有的作用，就会发生突然性的脆性破坏。为了防止发生剪跨比较大时的斜拉破坏，规范规定当V＞Vc/γd时，箍筋的配置应满足它的最小配筋率要求

对Ⅰ级钢筋，配筋率应满足   ρsv= Asv/(bs)≥ρsvmin=0.12%               ( 4-l0 )

    对Ⅱ级钢筋，配筋率应满足   ρsv= Asv/(bs)≥ρsvmin=0.08%              （4-11）

式中，ρsvmin——箍筋的最小配筋率。

四、斜截面抗剪承载力计算步骤

钢筋混凝土梁一般先进行正截面承载力设计，初步确定截面尺寸和纵向钢筋后，再进行斜截面受剪承载力设计计算。

   （1）作梁的剪力图。计算剪力设计值时的计算跨度取构件的净跨度，即l0＝ln。

   （2）以教材式(4-14)或教材式(4-16)验算构件截面尺寸是否满足斜截面受剪承载力的要求。

（3）对于矩形、T形及工形截面的一般受弯构件，如能符合

V≤ Vc/γd =（0.07fcbh0）/γd

对集中荷载为主的矩形截面独立梁，如能符合

                                 word/media/image9_1.png                             

则不需进行斜截面抗剪配筋计算，仅按构造要求，并满足最小配箍率设置腹筋。

   （4）如果教材式(4-19)或式(4-20)不满足，说明需要按承载力计算配置腹筋。这时有两种方式。

1）只配箍筋。当剪力完全由箍筋和混凝土承担时，对矩形、T形和工形截面梁，由式(4-8)可算得 word/media/image10_1.png

对集中荷载作用下的矩形截面独立梁，由教材式(4-9)可算得

                       word/media/image11_1.png   

   计算出Asv/s值后，根据Asv=nAsv1可选定箍筋肢数n，单肢箍筋截面积Asv1，然后求出箍筋的间距s。注意，选用箍筋的肢数、直径和间距应分别满足构造及最小配箍率要求。

    2）既配箍筋又配弯起钢筋。当需要配置弯起钢筋、箍筋和混凝土共同承担剪力时，一般先选配一定数量的箍筋(n、Asv1、s)，然后计算出Vcs，再按教材式(4-8)计算弯起钢筋截面面积

                        word/media/image12_1.png                       

弯起钢筋的计算一直要进行到最后一排弯起钢筋进入Vcs/γd的控制区段为止。也就是箍筋基本上是按构造及最小配箍率要求选配，然后全梁均匀布置不变，即所有截面的Vcs相等，这样就需要根据剪力的变化决定是否要弯起钢筋和弯起多少。

剪力设计值V取值时注意，当计算配箍筋或第一排(对支座而言)弯起钢筋时， 取支座边缘截面的最大剪力设计值V1。当计算以后每一排弯起钢筋时，取用前一排(对支座而言)弯起钢筋弯起点处的剪力设计值V2。弯起钢筋的计算一直要进行到最后一排弯起钢筋进入Vcs／γd的控制区段为止。

五、梁的整体设计概念和施工图的基本做法

这里以伸臂梁为例给出了一个整体构件设计的过程。对连续梁的配筋设计有借鉴作用。学习本门课程的一个主要目的就是能进行混凝土结构构件的设计计算，根据正截面和斜截面受力要求，再考虑构造要求，完成从截面设计到构件设计，直至整个结构的设计。大家需结合第10章的学习进一步理解掌握。这里有几点注意事项：

1．选择弯起钢筋时，要注意上部（支座截面）和下部（跨中截面）纵向钢筋的协调性，即一根钢筋通过变化兼做两个截面的受力筋，而不要多配，只有纵向钢筋没有那么多可以弯起时，才可以另加斜筋，或增强箍筋。例如教材图4-36中的钢筋②和③，它们在正截面计算中方便都予选取（见教材表4-3）。

2．确定弯起或切断钢筋位置时，是在满足基本要求的基础上，然后根据几何关系来进行。如钢筋②为了支座截面的斜截面抗弯和抗剪而定出下弯位置，其弯下后的终点可由竖向高度（容易由几何关系算出）与水平尺寸相等定出，其它类推，见教材图4-35、36。

3．作抵抗弯矩MR图实际就是进行钢筋布置设计，作图过程中要注意那一根钢筋相对于强度的充分利用点，或最大荷载弯矩截面首先变化，其抗力大小就应该画在抵抗弯矩图的最外侧。例如教材图4-36中，钢筋②作为上部受力筋，对充分利用的支座截面是首先弯下，在上部抵抗弯矩图中画在最外侧，钢筋③后变化，画在其内侧。

钢筋③作为下部受力筋时，对充分利用的跨中截面是首先弯上，在下部抵抗弯矩图中画在最外侧，钢筋②在此后变化，画在其内侧。不变化的就靠基线画出。

4．计算钢筋时，只要明确对其保护层厚度、锚固长度和变化位置的要求，就比较容易进行。

同学们要能看懂本章的计算题

 

第5章 钢筋混凝土受压构件承载力计算

       受压构件是工程结构中承受以压力作用为主的构件，一般情况下，受压构件的截面上作用有轴力，弯矩和剪力。按其受力情况可分为：轴心受压构件，单向偏心受压构件和双向偏心受压构件。在实际结构中，理想的轴心受压构件几乎是不存在的。当纵向压力作用线与构件形心轴线不重合，或截面上同时作用有轴向压力N和弯矩M时（可看成具有偏心距word/media/image13_1.png的轴向压力的作用），即为偏心受压构件

基本构造:

一、截面尺寸

受压构件的截面尺寸要考虑构件长细比的限制，避免纵向弯曲过大，承载力降低太多，不能充分利用材料的强度。一般限制长细比l0/b≤30及l0/h≤25（h为长边尺寸）以避免细长柱的失稳破坏。选择截面时一定要使偏心力沿长边方向作用，受力才合理。

二、混凝土强度等级

混凝土强度等级对受压构件的承载力影响较大，为了减少截面尺寸并节省钢材，宜采用强度等级较高的混凝土

三、纵向受力钢筋

纵向受力钢筋，主要指其受压钢筋不宜采用高强钢筋。这是因为钢筋受到混凝土极限压应变的限制，不能充分发挥其高强作用。根据钢筋和混凝土相同的变形条件，钢筋应力值只能取用word/media/image14_1.png作为抗压强度设计值。

纵筋，特别是受压纵筋直径应粗些，根数少些（但每边不得少于2根），以避免使用附加箍筋。纵向钢筋在轴向受压时沿截面周边均匀布置；在偏心受压时沿截面短边均匀布置。但要注意间距限制和纵向构造钢筋的设置及附加箍筋的设置条件。 

四、柱中箍筋

柱中箍筋的主要作用是箍筋与纵向钢筋形成整体性很好的钢筋骨架；箍筋可以抵抗剪力；增强柱子延性的作用；防止混凝土柱中纵向钢筋受压时的向外弯凸，以使混凝土保护层横向胀裂剥落。
钢筋骨架的其它要求见教材及前面讨论。柱中配筋示意见下图

　

　

　

　

　

　

基本概念：

一、轴心受压构件正截面承载力

（一）受力特点

轴心受压构件根据长细比l0/b区分为短柱（l0/b≤8）、长柱（8＜l0/b≤30）和细长柱（l0/b＞30）。短柱和长柱都因材料强度不够而破坏，并引入稳定系数来考虑由于纵向弯曲对长柱承载力降低的影响。细长柱则发生失稳破坏，应专门讨论。

（二）轴心受压构件正截面承载力计算公式（教材图5-7）

word/media/image16_1.png                                             （5-1）

二、偏心受压构件的受力研究

（一）大偏心受压破坏特征

当轴向力的偏心距较大，且远离轴向力一侧的纵向受力钢筋适量时发生。破坏时，首先受拉钢筋屈服。然后，受压区边缘混凝土达到极限压应变而被压碎，构件发生破坏（见教材图5-9）。这种破坏形态在破坏前有明显的预兆，属于延性破坏。

破坏的本质是受拉钢筋首先达到屈服强度，所以称受拉破坏。此种破坏形态类似于受弯构件正截面适筋破坏。

（二）小偏心受压破坏特征

当轴向力偏心距较小，或虽较大，但远离轴向力一侧的纵向钢筋过多时发生。构件的破坏是由混凝土的压碎引起的，破坏时，压应力较大侧的受压钢筋达到屈服强度，而另一侧的钢筋不论受拉还是受压，一般都达不到屈服强度（见教材图5-10）。这种破坏没有明显的预兆，属脆性破坏。配筋过多引起的小偏心受压破坏要避免。

受压区边缘混凝土首先达到其极限压应变而被压碎，所以称受压破坏。此种破坏形

态类似于受弯构件的正截面超筋破坏。

由于小偏心受压构件破坏时，远离轴向力一侧的纵向钢筋As不论受拉还是受压，其应力一般都达不到屈服强度。为节约钢材，一般可按最小配筋率及构造要求配置As。

（三）大、小偏心受压破坏的本质区别

本质区别在于截面受拉部分和受压部分谁先发生破坏，前者是受拉钢筋先屈服，而后压区混凝土被压碎；后者是受压区混凝土先被压碎。

大偏心受压与小偏心受压破坏形态的相同之处是截面的最终破坏都是受压区边缘混凝土达到其极限压应变而被压碎。

与受弯构件的适筋、超筋判断条件一样，偏心受压破坏形态与小偏心受压破坏形态之间存在着一种界限破坏状态，界限条件即以界限破坏特征来建立。

以大小偏心受压破坏本质可知：在偏心受压构件承载力计算或复核时，若ηe0>0.3h0与用word/media/image17_1.png判断相矛盾时，以word/media/image17_1.png方法为准，而用ηe0只是一种近似判断方法。

（四）纵向弯曲的考虑

偏心受压构件同样要考虑长细比（用l0/h判断）对长柱承载力降低的影响。计算中是在初始偏心距e0乘以偏心距增大系数η（≥1.0 ）来考虑纵向弯曲产生的附加挠度的影响（见教材图5-11示）。同样是限制长细比以避免细长柱的失稳破坏。

在l0/h≤8时，取η=1.0。

（五）偏压构件的最不利荷载组合

分析表明，在偏心受压构件，在其它条件一定的情况下，Nu与Mu为二次抛物线关系（见教材图5-20示），如果作用于截面上的内力（word/media/image18_1.png、word/media/image19_1.png）坐标位于图中曲线的内侧（如d点），说明该点对应的内力作用下未达到承载力极限状态，是安全的。若位于曲线外侧（如e点），则表明截面在该点对应的内力作用下承截力不足。（word/media/image18_1.png、word/media/image19_1.png）坐标点越偏离曲线外侧，越危险。

研究偏心受压构件正截面承载力Nu—Mu相关曲线，就可以从N和M的对应关系判断出哪些内力组合对截面起控制作用，从而选择最危险的内力组合进行配筋设计。

大偏心受压时的最不利荷载组合：

M值相同，则N愈大愈安全，N愈小愈危险。

小偏心受压时的最不利荷载组合：

M值相同，N愈大愈危险，N愈小愈安全。

（六）对称配筋的特点

在实际工程中，偏心受压构件在各种不同荷载(风荷载、地震作用、竖向荷载)作用下，在同一截面内可能分别承受正负号的弯矩，即截面在一种荷载组合下为受拉的部位，在另一种荷载组合下变为受压。当正负弯矩值数值相差不大或即使相反方向的弯矩值相差较大，但纵向钢筋用量相差不多时，均宜采用对称配筋。对称配筋的主要优点是计算和施工方便，主要缺点是钢筋用量较多，不够经济。

基本计算公式及计算方法：

一、偏心受压构件正截面承载力计算公式

1．计算简图

根据四个基本假定，采用等效的矩形应力图形代替曲线应力图形, 正截面承载力计算简图见图示。

2．基本公式

（1）设计表达式

word/media/image20_1.png根据计算简图和截面内力的平衡条件，并满足承载力极限状态的计算要求，可得矩形截面偏心受压构件正截面承载力计算的两个基本公式

word/media/image21_1.png                                                  （5-2）

word/media/image22_1.png        　　　　　                           （5-3）

word/media/image23_1.png                     （5-4）

计算的钢筋应力应符合：word/media/image24_1.png ，也可将x=ξh0代入上述公式表述。

（2）适用条件

1）ξ≤ξb时，按大偏心受压计算，σs= fy ；word/media/image17_1.png＞word/media/image25_1.png时，按小偏心受压计算，σs按公式（5-4）确定。

2）与受弯构件类似，大偏心受压时，要求x≥2a"；小偏心受压时，x比较大，必然满足此条件。

3）为避免发生少筋情况，要求： ρ≥ρmin

偏心受力构件构件，当截面上给出了作用轴向力N和弯矩M时（一般按力学方法计算出的内力结果），一定要换算成偏心距

e0=M/N的偏心力N的作用，然后分清对那一处取矩而建立计算方程。

此外，无论是截面设计或截面承载力复核，小偏心受压构件除了在弯矩作用平面内按偏心受压计算外，还要验算垂直于弯矩作用平面的轴心受压承载力，此时自然应用word/media/image26_1.png值考虑纵向弯曲的影响，并取l0/b进行计算。这是因为偏心力方向因偏心力作用可能弯曲变形较大，但小偏心受压偏心距较小，造成的弯曲变形也就较小（此方向是由l0/h控制），而因l0/b大于l0/h，所以在没有偏心方向（垂直于弯矩作用平面内）由于轴心力的作用就有可能因纵向弯曲过大，承载力降低过多，而提前发生破坏，故要对按偏心受压计算的截面，再按轴心受压进行一下复核，一般情况都能满足。大偏心受压构件因偏心距较大，不会出现此问题，也就不必复核。

小偏心受压构件当轴向力偏心距很小，且轴向力又比较大word/media/image27_1.png时，肯定是全截面受压，且截面受力较为均匀，趋近轴心受力。但若此时远离轴向力一侧面的钢筋word/media/image28_1.png如果配置的太少（一般可按最小配筋率及构造要求配置As），该侧混凝土可能先达到极限压应变而破坏（因此时两侧受力又差不多，而此侧钢筋太少，为混凝土分担的能力有限，所以其先破坏）。为防止此种情况发生，可取word/media/image29_1.png，word/media/image30_1.png（自然As已达抗压强度设计值），对word/media/image31_1.png合力点取力矩平衡复核As（见教材图5-14(b)），最后取算得到的较大值配筋。

二、偏心受压构件正截面承载力计算方法

（一）截面设计

在计算之前，由于钢筋截面面积word/media/image32_1.png和word/media/image33_1.png为未知数，混凝土相对受压区高度word/media/image34_1.png将无法计算，因此，无法利用word/media/image35_1.png判别截面类型，对于正常配筋的构件，实际设计时可根据偏心距大小来判别：

(1)当word/media/image36_1.png＞0.3h0时，可按大偏心受压构件设计；

(2)当word/media/image36_1.png≤0.3h0时，可按小偏心受压构件设计。

1．大偏心受压构件计算

（1）已知弯矩设计值M和轴向压力设计值N、截面尺寸、混凝土和钢筋等级，需求受拉钢筋与受压钢筋截面面积（As及A"s）。

1）根据充分利用混凝土的抗压能力，使用钢量(As+A"s)为最小的原则补充一个条件，即令ξ=ξb（或x=ξbh0）

2）由αsb=ξb(1–0.5ξb)计算得αsb。

3）按式(5-3)计算受压钢筋截面面积

word/media/image37_1.png   word/media/image38_1.png≥ρminbh0                          

　　4）按式(5-2)计算受拉钢筋截面面积

word/media/image39_1.png≥ρminbh0

若由式（5-3）计算出的word/media/image40_1.png，则按word/media/image41_1.png配筋。此时因A"s与计算结果相差过大，不能直接求As，应按word/media/image42_1.png为已知的第2种情形计算As。

5）按计算的钢筋截面面积，并考虑构造要求选配和布置钢筋。

（2）已知弯矩设计值M和轴向压力设计值N、截面尺寸、钢筋与混凝土等级、受压钢筋截面面积A"s（注意此A"s不一定是第1种情形按word/media/image41_1.png配的筋，也可能是由于其它要求，如抗震延性的所需等），求受拉钢筋截面面积As。

此时一定要充分利用已有的受压钢筋，不能再用ξ＝ξb，此条件已不成立。共有两个未知数（As与x），可由基本方程直接求解，计算步骤为：

1）按式(5-3)计算

word/media/image43_1.png

    2）由word/media/image44_1.png求得ξ值。

3）若ξ＞ξb，则说明由于某种原因所要求的受压钢筋A"s数量不够（不是第1种情形转换过来的A"s），应将此A"s看作未知，按第一种情况重新计算A"s与As。也可适当加大截面尺寸或提高混凝土强度等级来解决。偏心距比较大时（判断word/media/image36_1.png＞0.3h0），最好不要设计为小偏心受压构件，要解决ξ＞ξb的问题。

4）若word/media/image45_1.png，则由(5-2)式

word/media/image46_1.png≥ρminbh0                    

　　5）若word/media/image47_1.png，则应下式计算As

word/media/image48_1.png≥ρminbh0                          

6）按计算的钢筋截面面积，并考虑构造要求选配和布置钢筋。

中间结果不满足ρminbh0，可按最小配筋率配筋，但要调整计算过程。若最终结果不满足ρminbh0，可按最小配筋率配筋，也可适当减小截面尺寸改善。

小偏心受压构件计算和截面复核计算的过程及方法请参见教材，不作为重点考核内容。但同学们应理解基本概念，会使用基本公式进行计算。

解题指导：教材本章的大偏压截面设计例题一定要熟练掌握。

 

第10章 预应力混凝土结构构件计算

 

一、 预应力混凝土结构的基本概念

（一）预应力混凝土结构的基本工作原理

预应力混凝土结构，就是在外荷载作用之前，先通过张拉钢筋对混凝土施加压力，造成人为的应力状态的结构。它所产生的预压应力能抵消外荷载所引起的部分或全部拉应力。这样，在外荷载作用下，裂缝就能延缓或不会产生，即使出现了裂缝，裂缝宽度也不致过大。

预应力的作用可用图示的梁来说明。在外荷载作用下，梁下边缘产生拉应力s3，如图 (b)。如果在荷载作用以前，给梁先施加一偏心压力N，使得梁下边缘产生预压应力s1如图 (a)，那么在外荷载作用后，截面的应力分布将是两者的叠加,，如图 (c)。梁的下边缘应力可为压应力（如s1－s3＞0）或数值很小的拉应力（如s1－s3＜0﹚。

（二）预应力混凝土结构的特点（见图示）

　

　与钢筋混凝土结构相比较，预应力混凝土结构主要有以下方面的特点：

1、预应力荷载所产生的预压应力能抵消外荷载所引起的部分或全部拉应力，这样，预应力混凝土结构在使用荷载作用下不出现裂缝或推迟裂缝的出现。在同样的荷载下，能减小裂缝宽度，所以抗裂度大为提高，因此也提高了构件的刚度，增加了结构的耐久性。

但裂缝出现的荷载与破坏荷载比较接近，破坏前变形较小，延性较差。

　

word/media/image50_1.png　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　2、预应力结构中的预应力钢筋从张拉直到破坏始终处于高应力状态，而混凝土在荷载到消压阶段以前主要处于受压状态,所以发挥了两种材料各自的特长。所以，预应力混凝土结构可以合理、有效地利用高强钢筋和高强混凝土从而节省材料，减轻结构自重，也解决了大跨钢筋混凝土结构的裂缝问题，可建造大跨度结构，也就在这方面显示了其优势。

钢筋混凝土结构采用高强材料时，由于混凝土的抗拉强度并没有显著提高，所以裂缝仍不易控制，而不能达到这一目标。

（三）预应力混凝土结构的分类

国际预应力混凝土协会根据对构件裂缝控制程度不同，划分为：

1．全预应力混凝土结构

在全部荷载即荷载效应的短期组合下，截面不出现拉应力的预应力混凝土结构，称为全预应力混凝土结构。全预应力混凝土结构的特点是：

（1）抗裂性好。由于构件截面不出现拉应力，混凝土不开裂，因而其抗裂性能好、刚度大，常用于对抗裂或抗腐蚀性能要求较高的结构，如核电站安全壳、贮液罐、吊车梁等。

（2）抗疲劳性能好。预应力钢筋从张拉到使用阶段的全过程中，其应力值变化幅度小，所以在重复荷载下抗疲劳性能好。

（3）反拱值可能过大。当按活荷载较大的短期组合设计了结构构件。而在正常使用情况下，会因存在的活荷载变小，预加应力较高，引起结构的反拱过大；而且也会使混凝土在施工阶段产生裂缝。从而影响上部结构构件的正常使用。

（4）延性较差。由于构件的开裂荷载与极限荷载较为接近，使构件延较差，对结构的抗震不利。

2．有限预应力混凝土结构

在全部荷载即荷载效应的短期组合下，截面拉应力不超过混凝土规定的抗拉强度；在长期荷载即荷载效应的长期组合下，截面不出现拉应力的预应力混凝土结构，称为有限预应力混凝土结构。

3．部分预应力混凝土结构

截面允许出现裂缝，但最大的裂缝宽度不得超过允许的限值，称为部分预应力混凝土结构。部分预应力混凝土结构的特点：

（1）节约钢材。可根据结构构件的不同使用要求、荷载作用情况及环境条件等，对裂缝进行控制，降低了预应力值，从而节约预应力钢筋及锚具的用量，简化张拉、锚固等工艺，降低造价。

（2）反拱值不致于过大。由于施加预应力较小，可避免产生过大反拱。

（3）延性较好。由于配置了非预应力钢筋，可提高构件的延性，有利于结构抗震。

有限预应力混凝土结构的特点正好介于全预应力混凝土结构与部分预应力混凝土结构之间。现在常把有限预应力混凝土结构包含于部分预应力混凝土结构之中，即一般意义的部分预应力混凝土结构包含了有限预应力混凝土结构和传统的部分预应力混凝土结构。与全预应力混凝土结构相比，部分预应力混凝土结构综合经济技术效果较好。对于抗裂要求不太高的结构构件，部分预应力混凝土结构已得到广泛应用。另外，钢筋混凝土结构可以认为是预应力为零的混凝土结构。

以上分析可知，预应力不是越大越好，而应根据需要而定。一般可根据结构构件的不同使用要求、荷载作用情况及环境条件等，对裂缝进行合理控制。

二、施加预应力的方法

张拉预应力钢筋，而后放松，预应力钢筋的弹性回缩受到混凝土阻止而使混凝土受到挤压，产生预压应力。

先张法是先张拉预应力钢筋，后浇筑混凝土的方法。靠钢筋与混凝土之间的粘结力来传递和保持预应力。

后张法是先浇筑混凝土构件，当构件混凝土达到一定的强度后，在构件上张拉预应力钢筋的方法。靠端部承压锚具传递和保持预应力。

三、预应力钢筋的张拉控制应力

张拉控制应力是指张拉预应力钢筋时，预应力钢筋达到的最大应力值。

张拉控制应力的大小直接影响预应力的效果。张拉控制应力取值越高，预应力钢筋对混凝土的预压作用越大，可适当节省钢筋。但如果张拉控制应力取值过高，可能导致钢筋脆断，发生事故，也会产生过大的应力松弛，降低预应力的效果。

σcon的取值过低也不行，影响预应力钢筋充分发挥作用，技术经济指标过低。

四、预应力损失计算

由于张拉工艺和材料性能等原因，从张拉钢筋开始到构件使用整个过程中，σcon将不断降低，即张紧的钢筋回缩松动导致σcon降低，这种降低称为预应力损失σl。

凡是能使预应力筋产生缩短的因素，都将引起预应力损失。预应力损失的计算和减少是预应力混凝土结构设计和施工中的一个关键问题。过高或过低估计预应力损失，都会对结构的使用性能产生不利影响。

同学要知道产生预应力损失的原因，可能出现的几种预应力损失及其常规算法和减少预应力损失的措施。

五、预应力混凝土结构的材料

预应力结构构件所用的混凝土，需满足下列要求：强度高；收缩、徐变小；快硬、早强。

预应力结构构件所用的钢筋，需满足下列要求：强度高；与混凝土有较好的粘结力；具有良好的加工性能；具有较好的塑性。

预应力混凝土结构的锚具，需满足下列要求：与预应力筋匹配，能可靠的锚固预应力筋，避免其滑动；构造简单，造价低；耐久性好。

六、预应力混凝土轴心受拉构件的应力分析

（一）先张法预应力混凝土轴心受拉构件的应力分析

1、预应力损失全部出现后的状态(教材表9-6图d)

总的预应力损失为σl=σlⅠ+σlⅡ。

word/media/image51_1.png这是混凝土受到的预压应力σpeⅡ，即为张拉完成之后在混凝土结构中建立的有效预压应力，其计算公式为：

word/media/image52_1.png预应力筋的拉应力σpⅡ为张拉控制应力σcon减去全部预应力损失σl和混凝土受压后产生压缩变形导致预应力筋的拉应力减少值εsEs=αEσpc = 2 \* ROMAN II

　

　非预应力钢筋与混凝土粘结变形协调，受到的是压应力σsⅡ，其值为word/media/image53_1.png

预应力钢筋和非预应力钢筋中减去预应力损失的总预拉力

word/media/image54_1.png

2、荷载作用下的消压状态(教材表9-6图e)

构件在开始外荷载作用后，会在某一特定轴向拉力N0下使混凝土的有效预压应力σpc = 2 \* ROMAN II降为零，即截面混凝土应力为零，该情况称为消压状态，N0称为消压轴力。此后，混凝土才真正开始受拉。

此时截面中的各部分应力均为外荷载作用下产生的拉应力与张拉完成之后的预应力word/media/image55_1.png叠加结果：word/media/image56_1.png预应力筋的拉应力σp

word/media/image57_1.png非预应力钢筋的压应力σs

word/media/image58_1.png预应力筋与非预应力钢筋的合力

3、混凝土即将开裂的状态(教材表9-6图f)

随着荷载的进一步增加，使得混凝土受拉应力，并达到混凝土轴心抗拉强度标准值ftk时，裂缝就将出现。此时由平衡条件可得开裂荷载Ncr为

word/media/image59_1.png

word/media/image60_1.png  混凝土的拉应力

word/media/image61_1.png预应力筋的拉应力

word/media/image62_1.png非预应力钢筋的压应力
式中ftkA0即为钢筋混凝土轴心受拉构件的开裂荷载。由上式可见，预应力构件的抗裂能力由于多了一项σpcⅡA0而比非预应力构件大大提高。

4、破坏阶段(教材表9-6图h)

word/media/image63_1.png当预应力筋、非预应力钢筋的应力达到各自受拉屈服强度时，构件就发生破坏。此时的外荷载为构件的极限承载力Nu

（二）后张法预应力混凝土轴心受拉构件的应力分析

预应力损失全部出现后，各部分应力为：

word/media/image64_1.pngword/media/image65_1.png

外荷载作用后的计算方法与先张法完全一样，但要注意张拉完成之后的预应力结果的不同。word/media/image66_1.pngword/media/image67_1.png

式中：

Ac——混凝土截面面积，Ac=A－As－Ap

An——净截面面积 ，An= Ac+αE As

A0——换算截面面积，A0=Ac+αEAs+αEAp。

换算截面是按整体工作阶段应变协调的原则将纵向非预应力钢筋和纵向预应力钢筋换算成混凝土截面面积再加上混凝土的净截面面积三者的总合，即A0= Ac+αE As+αE Ap。

净截面是对后张法构件，施工阶段由于预应力钢筋与混凝土之间还没有粘结，预应力合力相当于外力作用在钢筋混凝土净截面An (An= Ac+αE As) 上，没有包括预应力钢筋的换算截面面积。而在使用阶段，已经灌浆形成整体，所以两者都用换算截面面积A0。

先张法与后张法相应公式相比，只是张拉施工阶段有些不同。同时,先张法用换算截面面积A0，后张法采用净截面面积An，因为A0>An,所以，若两种方法    σcon的相同，则后张法构件中建立的预压应力要高些。

希望同学们把预应力混凝土轴心受拉构件的应力分析一节学好，这是我们理解预应力混凝土结构特点的基础。

 七、预应力混凝土轴心受拉构件承载力计算

构件破坏时，荷载全部由预应力和非预应力钢筋承担，其正截面承载力由下

word/media/image68_1.png时计算：
当材料强度等级和配筋量相同时，预应力混凝土轴心受拉构件与普通混凝土轴心受拉构件的承载力相同。因为，构件破坏时荷载全部由预应力和非预应力钢筋承担，而且它们都达到抗拉强度设计值。

 八、正截面裂缝控制验算

《规范》根据结构构件所处环境类别，钢筋种类对腐蚀的敏感性，以及荷载作用时间，将裂缝控制分为三个等级：

（一）严格要求不出现裂缝的构件(抗裂验算)

在荷载效应的短期组合下应满足条件：

cs－pc≤0.0              

（二）一般要求不出现裂缝的构件(抗裂验算)

1、在荷载效应的短期组合下应满足条件： cs－pc≤ctftk   

2、在荷载效应的长期组合下应满足条件：cl－pc≤ctftk

式中， pc——扣除全部预应力损失后在验算截面边缘混凝土的预压应力，即为张拉完成之后在混凝土结构中建立的有效预压应力σpcⅡ。这里按应力进行抗裂验算。

（三）允许出现裂缝的构件（裂缝宽度验算）

在荷载效应的短期和长期组合下最大的裂缝宽度不得超过规范允许值。最大裂缝宽度的计算公式与钢筋混凝土构件相同，但计算纵向受拉钢筋的等效应力ss及sl，这里要考虑预应力荷载的作用效果。

三种裂缝控制等级大体前述的相当于全预应力混凝土、有限预应力混凝土和部分预应力混凝土。

 

九、预应力构件与普通混凝土构件受力特点比较（见图示）

(1)在普通混凝土构件中,钢筋中的应力值在构件开裂前很小，而预应力构件中的预应力钢筋从张拉直到破坏始终处于高应力状态，混凝土在荷载到达N0以前始终处于受压状态，所以发挥了两种材料各自的特长。

(2)预应力构件出现裂缝比普通混凝土构件迟得多，所以构件抗裂度大为提高,但裂缝出现的荷载与破坏荷载比较接近，延性较差。

(3)当材料强度等级和截面尺寸相同时, 预应力混凝土轴心受拉构件与普通混凝土轴心受拉构件的承载力相同；但预应力受弯构件由于应力状态的影响，与普通混凝土受弯构件相比有一定差别。

 

 

第6～7章 钢筋混凝土受拉、受扭构件承载力计算

第6章 钢筋混凝土受拉承载力计算

基本概念：

偏心受拉构件根据纵向拉力N的作用位置不同，其受力破坏特点可分为大、小偏心受拉构件，也就是纵向拉力N的作用线在钢筋As和A"s之外或钢筋As和A"s之间，是判定大小偏心受拉的界限。

一、小偏心受拉构件

当偏心距word/media/image69_1.png时；偏心受拉构件破坏时，全截面混凝土裂通，而退出工作，拉力全部由钢筋承担。当两边钢筋都受拉，而先后达到屈服强度fy时，构件破坏，此为小偏心受拉构件（如教材图6-4）。

二、大偏心受拉构件

当偏心距word/media/image70_1.png，且靠近轴向力一侧的纵向受力钢筋适量时，偏心受拉构件破坏时，首先受拉钢筋达到屈服，最终压区混凝土达到极限压应变，混凝土被压碎而使构件破坏，此为大偏心受拉构件（如教材图6-6）。

 

基本计算公式及计算方法

一、小偏心受压构件正截面承载力计算公式及计算方法

word/media/image71_1.png（一）计算公式

根据破坏特征，建立如图6-4所示的计算简图。

按力矩平衡条件（分别对As和A"s取矩），考虑可靠度设计要求，给出设计计算公式：

word/media/image72_1.png

word/media/image73_1.png

e和e"这些几何参数都可由计算简图中的几何关系求出。

（二）荷载组合

   分析知道小偏心受拉构件所需考虑的荷载组合：计算As应取N和M都大的组合；计算A"s应取N较大而M较小的荷载组合。也就是说，若有多种荷载组合，两边钢筋可能不是同一种荷载组合计算出来的。

（三）计算方法

截面设计时，更加最不利荷载组合，分别按（6-1）、（6-2）计算As和A"s，并满足最小配筋率和构造条件配筋。

截面复核时，可由式（6-1）、式（6-2）分别求得Nu值，其中较小者即为构件正截面的极限承载能力。

 

二、大偏心受压构件正截面承载力计算公式及计算方法

（一）计算公式

word/media/image74_1.png

   

大偏心受拉的破坏特征与大偏心受压构件类似，故所采用的应力图形和计算公式的建立方法与适用条与大偏心受压相类似。但要注意纵向力N的指向正好与大偏心受压构件相反。

按力矩平衡（对As取矩）和力的平衡条件，考虑可靠度设计要求，给出设计计算公式：

word/media/image75_1.png           （6-3）

word/media/image76_1.png（6-4）

（二）计算方法

1．截面设计

（1）已知弯矩设计值M和轴向拉力设计值N、截面尺寸、混凝土和钢筋等级，需求受拉钢筋与受压钢筋截面面积（As及A"s）。

1）根据充分利用混凝土的抗压能力，使用钢量(As+A"s)为最小的原则补充一个条件，即令ξ=ξb（或x=ξbh0）

2）由αsb=ξb(1–0.5ξb)计算得αsb。

3）按式(6-4)计算受压钢筋截面面积

word/media/image37_1.png   word/media/image38_1.png≥ρminbh0                          

　　4）按式(6-3)计算受拉钢筋截面面积

word/media/image77_1.png≥ρminbh0

若由式（6-4）计算出的word/media/image40_1.png，则按word/media/image41_1.png配筋。此时因A"s与计算结果相差过大，不能直接求As，应按word/media/image42_1.png为已知的第2种情形计算As。

5）按计算的钢筋截面面积，并考虑构造要求选配和布置钢筋。

（2）已知弯矩设计值M和轴向拉力设计值N、截面尺寸、钢筋与混凝土等级、受压钢筋截面面积A"s（注意此A"s不一定是第1种情形按word/media/image41_1.png配的筋，也可能是由于其它要求，如抗震延性的所需等），求受拉钢筋截面面积As。

此时一定要充分利用已有的受压钢筋，不能再用ξ＝ξb，此条件已不成立。共有两个未知数（As与x），可由基本方程直接求解，计算步骤为：

1）按式(6-4)计算

word/media/image43_1.png

    2）由word/media/image44_1.png求得ξ值。

　

3）若ξ＞ξb，则说明由于某种原因所要求的受压钢筋A"s数量不够（不是第1种情形转换过来的A"s），应将此A"s看作未知，按第一种情况重新计算A"s与As；也可适当加大截面尺寸或提高混凝土强度等级，来避免超筋破坏。而且不能象偏心受压构件那样，设计为小偏心受拉构件。

4）若word/media/image45_1.png，则由(6-3)式

word/media/image78_1.png≥ρminbh0                    

5）若word/media/image47_1.png，则应下式计算As

word/media/image48_1.png≥ρminbh0                          

6）按计算的钢筋截面面积，并考虑构造要求选配和布置钢筋。

    2．截面复核

   （1）联立解式(6-3)和式(6-4)得x值。

（2）若2a"≤x≤ξbh0，将x值代入式(6-3)或式(6-4)即可求得Nu值或Mu=Nue0；

（3）若x＞ξbh0，发生超筋破坏，则取x=ξbh0代入式(6-4)求得实际的Nu；当然不能象偏心受压构件那样，按小偏心受拉构件进行复核。

（4）若x＜2a"，由式(6-10)求得Nu值。

偏心受拉构件的构造做法请参见前面章节。

解题指导：

熟练掌握教材本章的大、小偏压截面设计例题。

 

第7章 钢筋混凝土受扭构件承载力计算 

基本构造:

受扭构件抗扭钢筋由抗扭纵筋和抗扭箍筋组成。

由于扭矩引起的剪应力在截面四周最大，因此，抗扭纵筋应沿截面周边对称布置，且截面四角处必须放置，其间距不应大于300mm，也不应大于截面宽度b，抗扭纵筋的两端应伸入支座，并满足锚固长度la的要求。

抗扭箍筋必须采用封闭形式且沿截面周边布置（肢数n=2），以每边都能承担拉力，为此，箍筋末端弯钩应大于135°（采用绑扎骨架时），且弯钩端平直长度应大于5dsv（dsv为箍筋直径）和50mm，以使箍筋未端锚固于截面核心混凝土内而可靠的受力。抗扭箍筋的直径和最大间距应满足第4章对箍筋的有关规定。

这种钢筋布置方式既能保证受扭构件的承载力，又能与受弯和受剪钢筋相协调。对受弯和受剪的要求同前。

 

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

基本概念：

一、纯扭构件的破坏形态

word/media/image80_1.png纯扭构件的破坏面是一三面受拉开裂，一面受压的沿45°方向发展的空间扭曲裂面（如教材图7-2示）。属于空间破坏面，破坏形态复杂。由于所配抗扭钢筋数量的不同，而发生三种不同性质的破坏形态。

 

　

　

　

　

　二、弯剪扭构件承载力研究

实际工程中，结构大多数情况下都是处于弯矩、剪力和扭矩共同作用下的复合受力状态。弯剪扭构件受力破坏影响因素较多，使得破坏形态更复杂。

计算中主要要考虑剪扭的相关作用，即剪扭相关性。而受弯独立进行。

1、剪扭相关性

对于剪力和扭矩的共同作用下的构件，由于剪力的存在会降低构件的抗扭承载力；同样，由于扭矩的存在，也会引起构件抗剪承载力的降低。这就是剪扭相关性。

2、剪扭相关性的处理方法

抗剪和抗扭承载力由混凝土和钢筋两部分组成：

第一项为混凝土的承载力，考虑剪扭的相关作用，并以线性关系代替1/4圆曲线的相关关系规律（见教材图7-10），以简化计算。经分析，引入剪扭构件混凝土受扭承载力降低系数word/media/image81_1.png来具体反映剪扭相关性对剪扭构件承载力的影响。

第二项为钢筋的承载力，不考虑剪扭的相关作用。

 3．带翼缘截面构件剪扭承载力计算原则

带翼缘截面关键是能正确的分块，截面分块划分的原则是首先满足腹板截面的完整性，即按宽为b沿总高h划分一矩形面积，然后再划分受压翼缘和受拉翼缘的面积（如图示）。

分块进行承载力计算时，要合理进行内力分配。

近似认为扭矩由整个截面分担，各矩形小块承担的扭矩按各小块受扭塑性抵抗矩比值的大小加以确定。剪力只由腹板承担，即腹板按剪扭截面计算，而翼缘按纯扭截面计算。

word/media/image82_1.png 

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

弯剪扭构件承载力计算方法

1．以式 word/media/image83_1.png

验算构件截面，以防止剪扭构件超筋破坏。不满足，则应加大截面尺寸或提高混凝土强度等级。

2．若满足下式要求： word/media/image84_1.png

则只需按受弯构件的正截面受弯承载力进行计算，而不需要进行剪扭配筋计算，仅按构造要求，并满足最小配筋率设置腹筋。

3．若满足下式要求：

word/media/image85_1.png

则可不计剪力V的影响，而只需按受弯构件的正截面受弯和受扭构件的纯扭分别来进行承载力计算。在剪扭相关性讨论中，认为Vc/Vc0≤0.5时，取Tc/Tc0=1.0，忽略剪力V的影响，所以有上结论。

4．若满足下式要求：

word/media/image86_1.png

则可不计扭矩T的影响，而只需按受弯构件的正截面和斜截面分别进行受弯和受剪承载力计算。在剪扭相关性讨论中，认为Tc/Tc0≤0.5时，取Vc/Vc0=1.0，忽略扭矩T的影响，所以有上结论。

5．若构件受力只满足式（7-22）的条件，而必须进行正常的弯剪扭构件承载力计算，则可按下列两方面进行：

（1）按受弯构件正截面受弯承载力计算所需的纵向钢筋As；

（2）按式（7-19）、式（7-20）、式(7-21)计算抗剪、扭纵向钢筋和箍筋：

（3）将上述分别计算所得的钢筋，按弯、剪、扭相应的构造要求进行布置，在重叠部位处的钢筋面积先进行叠加，而后再选配钢筋。如下为叠加配筋示意图，在这里同学们一定要清楚不同受力钢筋的布置位置。

　

　

word/media/image87_1.png　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

解题指导：

    要求能看明白教材例题，会用基本公式进行计算。

 

第8、10章钢筋混凝土构件正常使用极限状态验算和装配式钢筋混凝土矩形渡槽设计

第8章 钢筋混凝土构件正常使用极限状态验算

 

一、抗裂验算

抗裂就是不容许出现裂缝。对于一旦开裂就会严重影响使用性或耐久性的结构，应进行抗裂验算，采取措施保证其在正常使用阶段不开裂。

1、轴心受拉构件的抗裂验算

根据轴心受拉构件的抗裂极限状态：混凝土的拉应力σc=ft（教材图8-1），拉应变εc =εtu；钢筋拉应力可根据钢筋和混凝土应变相等的关系求得σs=εsEs=εcEs =αEεtuEc=αEft。对换算截面面积A0= Ac+αEAs（这样才好利用力学中的匀质弹性体分析方法），由力的平衡条件可求得即将发生裂缝时的抗裂轴向拉力：

Ncr= Acft+σs As= Acft+αEft As= ft（Ac +αE As）= ft A0  

在正常使用极限状态验算时，考虑目标可靠指标的要求，引进一个拉应力限制系数αct，形成有限拉应力状态，并且混凝土抗拉强度取用标准值，荷载也取用标准值。所以，对于轴心受拉构件，在荷载效应的短期组合及长期组合下，应按下列公式分别进行抗裂验算：

Ns≤αct ftk A0

Nl≤αct ftk A0

2、受弯构件的抗裂验算

根据受弯构件的抗裂极限状态，即第3章讨论的受弯构件在第Ⅰ阶段末尾将开裂的Ⅰa状态计算构件抗裂弯矩Mcr（见下图a）

由于混凝土受拉区的塑性发展，拉应力图形为曲线形（见下图a），可近似假定混凝土受拉区应力分布为见下图b所示的梯形，最终为分析方便，且能利用力学中的匀质弹性体计算方法，保持抗裂弯矩不变，转换为弹性应力分布（见下图c）。混凝土受拉区的塑性发展后，抗裂弯矩要大于弹性阶段（边缘混凝土的拉应力也是ft，但没有发展塑性）的值。因此，若转换为弹性应力分布，而要保持计算的抗裂弯矩不变，就必须改变应力图形的参数大小。这里在考虑塑性性质后，把弹性极限应力提高为γmft。

　

　

　

　

　经过这样的换算，就可把构件视作截面面积为A0= Ac+αE As+αE A"s的匀质弹性体，引用材料力学的公式，可得出受弯构件正截面抗裂弯矩Mcr的计算公式

　Mcr=γmftkW0

同样，引进一个拉应力限制系数αct，在荷载效应的短期组合及长期组合下，按下列公式分别进行抗裂验算：

Ms≤αctftkγmW0

Ml≤αctftkγmW0

如果验算公式两边同除以截面特征值（轴拉为A0、受弯为W0），实际相当于在荷载效应的短期组合和长期组合两种情况下，构件验算点拉应力不能超过由混凝土拉应力限制系数αct控制的应力值αctftk。偏心受力构件同样道理分析。

Ms( Ml)≤Mcr即满足抗裂要求。规范偏于安全出发用 αct对ftk进行了折减，也可宏观认为是对Mcr的折减。拉应力限制系数 αct的采用，实际上就是对混凝土抗拉强度标准值进行折减以控制截面应力不超过一更保守的限定值。短期组合和长期组合的概念见第2章。

3、偏心受力构件的抗裂验算

偏心受力构件可采用与受弯构件相同的方法分析计算抗裂性能，但关键是混凝土塑性影响系数γ的确定。

研究表明，偏心受拉构件受拉区塑化效应与受弯构件的塑化效应相比，有所减弱，这是因为它的受拉区应变梯度（受拉区边缘应变εtu与截面受拉区高度的比值。）比受弯构件的应变梯度要小。但它的塑化效应又比轴心受拉构件的大，因为轴心受拉构件的应变梯度为零（见教材图8-5）。因此，偏心受拉构件的塑性影响系数γ偏拉应处于γm（受弯构件的塑性影响系数）与1（轴心受拉构件的塑性影响系数）之间，可近似地认为γ偏拉是随截面的平均拉应力σ=Ns/ A0（σ=Nl/ A0）的大小，按线性规律在1与γm之间变化。

偏心受压构件由于受拉区应变梯度比较大，塑化效应比较充分，因而其塑性影响系数γ偏压比受弯构件的γm大。但在实际应用中，为简化计算并考虑偏于安全，取与受弯构件相同的数值，即取γ偏压＝γm。

经变换后，就可得出偏心受力构件在荷载效应的短期组合和长期组合下的抗裂验算教材公式（8-19、8-19、8-22、8-23）。

γ反映了截面塑性发展对构件抗裂性能的影响程度。

4、提高构件抗裂能力的方法

分析表明，开裂之前钢筋应力是很低的（混凝土的拉应变很低，钢筋与混凝土在开

裂之前保持应变协调限制了钢筋应力的发展），即对于钢筋混凝土的抗裂能力而言，钢筋所起的作用不大，对抗裂贡献是很有限的。所以用增加钢筋配筋率的办法来提高构件的抗裂能力是极不经济的，钢筋是在开裂后才有效发挥其限制裂缝作用。加大构件截面尺寸、特别是截面高度与提高混凝土的强度等级可有效提高构件抗裂能力。在混凝土中掺入纤维也可提高构件抗裂能力，最根本的方法是采用预应力混凝土结构，但这实际已超出普通钢筋混凝土结构的范围。

二、裂缝宽度验算

不必要求抗裂的构件，就可以放宽标准，允许其出现裂缝。但如果裂缝过宽，则会降低混凝土的抗渗性和抗冻性等使用功能，进而影响结构的耐久性和外观，并会引起使用者心理不安。因此，对这种构件就必须进行裂缝宽度验算，限制其裂缝宽度过大。

1、引起裂缝的因素

（1）荷载。荷载引起的混凝土的拉应变达到混凝土的极限拉应变时，混凝土就会开裂。

（2）非荷载因素。温度变化，混凝土收缩，基础沉降，混凝土塑性坍塌，钢筋锈蚀，碱—骨料化学反应等非荷载因素引起的变形受到约束时，就可能产生裂缝。

非荷载作用引起的裂缝目前还无法准确计算，但可从材料、设计和施工等方面采取措施予以减轻其危害。

2、裂缝宽度计算公式

（1）平均裂缝宽度

平均裂缝宽度等于平均裂缝间距内钢筋和混凝土的平均受拉伸长之差（见图8-10），即

wcr=εsmlcr-εcmlcr=word/media/image89_1.png

裂缝间钢筋应变不均匀系数ψ＝εsm／εs，反映了裂缝间受拉混凝土参与受拉工作的程度。裂缝间钢筋的平均拉应变εsm肯定小于裂缝截面处的钢筋应变εs。显然，ψ值不会大于1。ψ值越小，表示混凝土承受拉力的程度越大，因为裂缝间钢筋的平均拉应变εsm肯定小，主要由混凝土承受拉力；ψ值越大，表示混凝土承受拉力的程度越小，各截面中钢筋的应力、应变也比较均匀；当ψ值等于1时，表示混凝土完全脱离受拉工作，钢筋应力趋于均匀。这是可以说是原裂缝间的混凝土都已开裂而退出工作，全为裂缝截面。

（2）最大裂缝宽度

在荷载长期作用下，由于钢筋与混凝土的粘结滑移徐变、拉应力松弛和受拉混凝土的收缩影响，导致裂缝间混凝土不断退出工作，钢筋平均应变增大，裂缝宽度随时间推移逐渐增大。我们要控制的就是钢筋处的最大裂缝宽度。

经分析，按综合裂缝开展宽度计算理论给出了按荷载效应的短期组合(并考虑部分荷载长期作用的影响)和荷载效应长期组合的最大裂缝宽度：

word/media/image90_1.png

1）按荷载效应的短期组合(并考虑部分荷载长期作用的影响)的最大裂缝宽度

word/media/image91_1.png

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word/media/image92_1.png2）按荷载效应长期组合的最大裂缝宽度

　

这里主要讨论几个概念：

ρte ——纵向受拉钢筋的有效配筋率，ρte ＝As／Ate

Ate——有效受拉混凝土截面面积，取其重心与受拉较大一侧钢筋As(如是小偏拉，要按受拉较大的钢筋计算，包括应力，因此处裂缝宽度大)重心相一致的混凝土面积，即 Ate＝2abf(如图示中，两个a要相等且取较小值)

σss，σsl——分别按荷载效应的短期组合和长期组合，根据第Ⅱ阶段的截面应力特征计算。如图为受弯构件第Ⅱ阶段的截面应力状态。

 详细请看教材。

 3、减小裂缝宽度的方法

如果Wmax超过允许值，则应采取相应措施予以减小。如：

适当减小钢筋直径，使钢筋在混凝土中均匀分布；

采用与混凝土粘结较好的变形钢筋；

适当增加配筋量，以降低使用阶段的钢筋应力。裂缝宽度与钢筋应力基本成正比

这些方法都能一定程度减小正常使用条件下的裂缝宽度。而适当增加配筋量不够经济合理。对限制裂缝宽度而言最根本的方法也是采用预应力混凝土结构。而截面尺寸和混凝土强度对构件裂缝宽度的影响很小。

三、变形验算

1、钢筋混凝土梁变形计算的特点

对于匀质弹性材料梁，当梁的截面尺寸和材料确定后，截面的抗弯刚度EI就为常数了，然后可按《材料力学》的公式计算变形。由下图可知，钢筋混凝土梁由于塑性变形的出现以及裂缝的产生和发展，导致变形模量降低和截面惯性矩下降，使截面的抗弯刚度随着荷载的增加而不断降低。

对其正常使用状况（即属第3章讨论的第 = 1 \* ROMAN I、 = 2 \* ROMAN II阶段）下的挠度进行计算时，采用恒定的刚度EI就不能反映梁的实际工作情况。所以规范用抗弯刚度B取代式中的EI，B是随弯矩M的增大而减小的变量。分析表明，刚度B确定后仍可按材料力学的计算公式计算梁的挠度。所以，钢筋混凝土梁的变形（挠度）计算就归结为抗弯刚度B的计算。

word/media/image93_1.png

　

　

　

　

　

　

2、受弯构件的短期刚度Bs

（1）不出现裂缝的构件

 Bs＝0.85EcI0

0.85——考虑混凝土出现塑性时弹性模量的降低系数。此为阶段Ⅰ的刚度计算。

（2）出现裂缝的构件

Bs=(0.025+0.28αEρ)(1+0.55γ"f+0.12γf)Ecbh03

2、受弯构件的长期刚度Bl

在荷载长期作用下，钢筋混凝土梁受压区混凝土将产生压缩徐变，受拉区混凝土与钢筋之间将产生粘结滑移徐变，使受拉混凝土不断退出工作，即使荷载不增加，挠度也将随时间的增加而增大。混凝土收缩也会造成梁刚度降低、变形增大。因此需要得到长期刚度Bl，以求最大挠度值。

（1）荷载效应的短期组合（并考虑部分荷载长期作用影响）的刚度

word/media/image94_1.png
（2）荷载效应的长期组合的刚度

Bl= Bs/θ

4、最小刚度原则

构件的截面刚度随截面的内力和配筋大小而变，即沿构件跨度方向各截面刚度不等。为简化起见，在按材料力学方法计算受弯构件的变形时，取同号弯矩区段内截面的最小刚度作为该区段的平均刚度，而按等刚度或分段等刚度的构件进行计算。

5、提高刚度的方法

若验算挠度不能满足规范要求时，则表示构件的抗弯刚度不足。可以通过增加截面尺寸、提高混凝土强度等级、适当增加配筋量和选用合理的截面（如T形或工形等）的方法来提高刚度。但合理而有效的措施是适当增大截面的高度。采用预应力混凝土结构也可有效提高构件刚度。

这里计算时，要把荷载效应组合的概念真正弄懂。在第2章已经讲过，短时间内，可能存在所有对结构不利的荷载都出现的组合，当然是指的变化着的活荷载的短时共存，再叠加上必然存在的永久荷载，这就是荷载效应的短期组合。也就是说此组合中，长、短期荷载都有，所以可称为荷载效应的短期组合（并考虑部分荷载长期作用影响）的情况，承载力计算也只用到此组合。而荷载效应的长期组合中，只有长期作用性质的那部分荷载，即可由短期组合中，把短时间内存在的活荷载去掉，只保留长期作用永久荷载和可变荷载准永久值。所以，可以知道：短期组合的载准值实际包含了长期组合的载准值。

四、混凝土结构的耐久性

结构的耐久性是指结构在使用环境下，对物理的、化学的以及其他使结构材料性能恶化的各种侵蚀的抵抗能力。混凝土结构的耐久性问题越来越受到人们的重视。在设计混凝土结构时，除了进行承载力计算、变形和裂缝验算外，还必须进行耐久性设计。

由于影响因素的复杂，目前混凝土结构的耐久性设计实质上是针对影响耐久性能的主要因素提出相应的对策，即以概念设计为主。一般是采取措施一定来保证耐久性，提高耐久性的主要措施有：

合理加大混凝土保护层的最小厚度；严格按规范控制裂缝宽度；注意保证混凝土原材料的质量；提高混凝土的密实度；采用耐腐蚀钢筋；在结构表面设置专门的防渗面层等。

正常使用极限状态验算的基本概念一定要清楚，要看懂课本例题，会用基本公式进行计算。

  　　　　　　

第10章 装配式钢筋混凝土矩形渡槽设计

 

    这一章实际是一设计专题，结合水利工程一输水建筑物——渡槽，使同学们了解如何利用前面学过的基本知识来解决一实际结构的设计问题，掌握设计过程和方法，建立工程设计概念。

渡槽是渠道跨越河流、洼地和道路的输水建筑物，是水利工程中应用最广的交叉建筑物之一。渡槽结构和一般桥梁相似，由上部结构（槽身）和下部结构（墩、台或刚架）组成。

一、渡槽上部结构——槽身选型

1、纵向结构

纵向结构可考虑选用梁式渡槽结构型式。梁式渡槽的槽身在纵向起梁的作用，墙体既横向挡水，又起纵向大梁抗弯作用，使横向挡水与纵向承重有机合一。
采用简支梁式渡槽（见图示），施工方便，适应地基能力强。单跨简支梁式渡槽的优点是吊装方便，不受地形和渡槽高度的限制。缺点是槽身纵向正弯矩较大，且底板位于受拉区，对抗裂防渗不利。因此，简支梁式槽身的跨度一般需限制在15m以内。中小型渡槽常常采用此结构。

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 2、横向结构

矩形断面渡槽具有受力明确、计算可靠、施工简便等优点，钢筋混凝土梁式渡槽槽身多采用此种型式。

小型渡槽常用的矩形断面渡槽有：

（1）无横杆式（教材图10-4a）。在有通航要求或小型渡槽中采用无横杆的矩形槽。槽身侧墙在水平水压力作用下如同一悬臂板。缺点是在墙身较高时，侧墙底部弯矩较大。 

（2）有横杆式（教材图10-4b）。在无通航要求的渡槽中常采用有横杆的矩形槽，横杆间距常为2～3m。槽顶设置的横杆可作为侧墙顶部的一个支点，槽身横向受力犹如框架结构，从而改善了侧墙和底板的受力条件。

 

二、下部结构——支承刚架和基础

（1）支承刚架

刚架是由横梁和立柱刚性连接（刚节点）所组成的承重结构。

刚架形式有单刚架、双刚架等（教材图10-5）。单刚架高度H一般在15m以内；双刚架承载力高、刚度大，高度一般可在25m以内。根据使用要求，刚架结构可以是单层多跨的或多层多跨的。当刚架高度只在5m以下时，一般采用单层刚架，在5m以上时，则宜采用双层刚架或多层刚架。

（2）基础

刚架立柱所受的荷载都要通过基础传给地基，柱下基础的类型很多，如槽身不宽，所受荷载不大，地基又是土基(粘土、砂土、碎石土地基)，则基础可采用混凝土就地浇筑成的单独基础或条形基础。

1）柱下单独基础

柱下单独基础是一根柱下一个基础，常用的柱下单独基础有锥形基础和阶梯形基础两种(见教材图10-6)。

2）条形基础

两个柱基础连在一起，作成钢筋混凝土条形基础，如图10-8所示。

三、槽身结构设计计算

1、荷载及其组合

（1）渡槽上作用的荷载

结构自重；水重及水压力；人行道上的人群荷载；预制构件的吊装荷载，施工荷载

等。

（2）承载力计算的荷载组合

渡槽槽身中的水深为设计流量下的设计水深时，与同时出现的其它荷载（结构自重+人群荷载）的组合，按持久状况的基本组合考虑；

槽身中的水深为加大流量下的校核水深时，与同时出现的其它荷载（结构自重+人群荷载）的组合，按短暂状况的基本组合

（3）正常使用验算的荷载组合

短期组合（水深+人群荷载+结构自重）

长期组合（设计水深+结构自重）。

 2、槽身横向计算
槽身横向计算时，可沿纵向（顺槽身方向）取单位长度lm槽身为脱离体进行计算，不带横杆槽身结构计算简图如图所示。根据结构力学方法计算出各部分的内力，然后可按前面所学知识进行设计和验算。

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

在选择人行道板、侧墙及底板钢筋时，要注意钢筋间距互相协调（下图示），以方便施工时绑扎钢筋。协调就是三者的钢筋间距应是倍数关系，这可通过改变钢筋直径来调整。

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3、槽身纵向计算

梁式渡槽的槽身纵向计算是受弯构件，但要注意其截面形式的复杂性，配筋方式的特殊性（可上图）。

支承刚架和基础的设计方法可见其它有关教材。

 

（英文版 ）

easily blame, to prevent the broken window effect. Supervise the leading cadres to play an exemplary role, take the lead in the strict implementation of the < code > and < rule >, lead to safeguard the solemnity and authority of the party discipline, ensure that the party discipline and the laws and regulations for implementation in place. Throughout the discipline in the daily supervision and management

, strengthen supervision and inspection, from the thorough investigation of violations of discipline behavior. Strengthen to key areas, key departments and key projects as well as the masses reflect the concentration of the units and departments for supervision. - strengthening supervision, discipline inspection and supervision of cadres to set an example for compliance with the < code > and < rule > is a man must be hexyl, blacksmith needs its own hardware. Discipline inspection organs as the executor of the party discipline, and supervisor of the defenders, for its supervision must be more strictly, discipline inspection and supervision of cadres to firmly establish the awareness of Party Constitution, sense of discipline and rules consciousness, politics loyalty, sense obey. Action speak Ji Ordinance to set an example of the regulations of the rule of law, strengthen supervision and accept the supervision of the firmness and consciousness, do comply with < > and < >. To firmly establish the discipline must first be disciplined, the supervisor will be subject to the supervision of "concept, and consciously safeguard and implement party compasses party, take the lead in practicing" three strict real strict, so loyal, clean, play. To be good at learning, the Constitution and the < code > as morality, politics and brought to fruition; to implement < >, do not want to, dare not, not with disciplinary ruler to supervision; to discipline a ruler, often the control inspection, and consciously in the ideological red line to draw the row Ming Good accumulation is indeed the bottom line, so that the heart has fear, said to have quit, the line has ended. Attached: indifferent to heart, calmly to the table in our life, there are many unpredictable things will happen, some good, some bad things, we cannot control is powerless to stop, but with time, you will find in life sometimes turns out to be not good, some bad things finally turned out to be a good thing, but then we muddy however did not know, this is the life teach us things. 1, life can be complex, can also be simple. Want simple life of precipitation, to have enough time to reflect, to make Become more perfect. Life is the most important thing is not to win, but the struggle; not to have conquered, but to have fought well. 2, the plain is the background of life. Live a plain life, give up on themselves is not a coward, but the wise answers; not disillusioned after the heart, such as ashes, but experience the storm after the enlightenment; not unrewarding perfunctorily, but calm attitude of life of unrestrained self-confidence. Plain living, there is no noise noisy, no earthly troubles, more did not fill in the discontent of desire, some just a calm, a calm. 3, memory of heart will not good things to erase the, life is a When no movie, pain is a beginning, the struggle is a kind of process, death is a kind of ending. Give up this giving up is the helpless, do not give up the abandoned, do not give up this giving up is ignorance, do not give up should not give up is persistent. 4, a thing figured is heaven, think impassability is hell. Since the living, to live better. Sometimes we because of too narrow-minded, too care around the chores and penny wise and pound foolish, not worth the candle. Some things to attract trouble and worry, completely depends on how we look at and deal with it. Don"t always take everything back to things, and don"t get into a blind alley, don"t want to face, don"t be narrow-minded. Poke to care, is a kind of open-minded, a free and easy. 5, I am not afraid of others behind me a knife, I afraid to look back and see stab me, is my intention to treat people; I am not afraid of the truth to tell the best friend, I"m afraid he turned to it as a joke to tell don"t 6, when we are in a positive frame of mind, you will find many good things; and when we are in a negative state of mind, you will find many depressed things; life happy and worry, all is you of life attitude, optimistic, good luck; loss of sink, Eritrea company. When you are in adversity, may wish to change a point of view to think everything over to the good Think, because good mentality decided the fate of the! 7, people are tired, rest; heart tired, calm. Grow up, mature, this society read. Tired and sad, squat down, to their a hug. Because the world no one can sympathize with you, have mercy on you. You cry, tears is your own; you pain, no one can understand. Then you only tears to smile. 8, each people have youth,

Each youth are a story, the life of the world never gets easier, I want what, wish the world all know, as has been the same; now want anything, for fear that others know, or like to lose the same. 9, the heart move, everything in the world is followed by birth, Rangrang, important thing is often the most difficult to open one"s mouth, because words will reduce its importance; to let strangers people care about your life in the good things, the original is not easy 10, do not blame, do not laugh at who, also don"t envy who. Like a person is a kind of feeling, not like a person is true. The truth is easy to explain, I feel Is unspeakable. The best travel life is that you in a strange place found a long lost touched. 11, happy life not in the bustling in, and in the peace of mind; no matter how many grievances, how uncomfortable, and ultimately to heal themselves or their own, others may got you to comfort, but never know your heart is how wanjianchuanxin. 12, ma"am, like a movie, learn to appreciate, learn to be grateful, learn tolerance, and goodness, helping others. Instead of accusing the society, as into one; and an exception is better to give than to what 13, don"t envy him A sum of, don"t lose your life and the life, respectively is: the former is a we experienced cannot escape in a day finally will last minute, while the latter is our persistent, we want to cherish the memory of those people and things. 14, learn to smile, learn to strong, the world you know so many people, so many people and you are, you cannot change also can"t let everyone like you, so also do not want to do. Life is too short to go crazy to love to go to waste, to chase the dream to regret. 15, when temper, a blessing to go. A wounding elegant people, the key is to control their own emotions. With the mouth is the most stupid behavior. A control negative emotions than a can take a city more powerful water flow slow, language is expensive. People spent two years of time to learn to speak, but to spend a few years time to shut up. That is a kind of ability, that is a kind of wisdom. 16, life is not perfect, sometimes, growth is not a cry, not an eyeful of tears, there is no trace of emotion, there is no gleam of hope, no desire, no action, no static, there is only one kind of downward sinking feeling, sink A murky? 6? 7? 6? 7 sink? 6? 7? 6? 7 toward the bottom of the sink. 17, in some way, do not go, you will not know the other side scenery is beautiful. To you is not good, you do not mind too much, no one has an obligation to you; you learn knowledge, is you have weapons, you can start from scratch, but not unarmed; how do you treat people, does not represent how others treat you, if cannot see through this point, only inviting worry. 18, time is like a sponge in the water, as long as you are willing to squeeze, the total water is still there. Every life, after the ups and downs The best test of live, to life, survival and continuation, do not stop the struggle in the joys and sorrows of life on the road, so that different soul to bear life beat, acceptance of suffering. 19, indifferent to heart, calmly in table, elegant and comfortable life, do not take what is so important. The pursuit will be disappointed; to be alive, you will have trouble. Life is the most afraid of what all want to care about, but also what all grasp is not firm, without scenery, separated populations, such as not to desire, all docked in the fate of the end. Why is too rigid, the natural, to go stay not to live, let go of obsession, revel is 20, if the fate of the broken Hopes of sailing, please don"t despair, the coast is still, if the fate of the withered petals of the beautiful, please do not sink, the spring is still, life will always be endless trouble, please don"t helpless, because they are still alive, is still a dream, the sun still, we still. Lost, keep memories; to get, must work to; but the most important is good to cherish their own. 21, life, select the complex, is to choose the pain; choose a simple, is choose to be happy. The complex world like a

Significance of pride. Hope is the ornate palace, outside people admiring the magnificent, living in the deep knowledge of living it to pay the price. Simple world as a simple log cabin outside ridiculed shabby, the heart is willing to go live to know the joy. Suffering and joy is their own choice. 22, learn how to use a single powerful heart, let the past be the past, let the future come. Life is really the end of the end of an eagle is flying wings, life is constantly pursuit. Don"t miss to regret, don"t wait for old just miss. Time to return, seize every moment, again painstakingly again tired also Those struggling to fly. 23, life could not Yimapingchuan, even flat pavement, inevitably there will be a few pieces of roadblocks. Some of the rocks around the past, while others have to move it out. Just move others put the stone is very easy, because the stone from the appearance we can discern; difficult to myself to move away the heart of stone head. Leave time to spend with her, often reflect my heart, so as to remove your heart of stone. 24, everything does not have to be demanding, come to, everything does not have to care about, over the past; failing to do not frown, laugh it laugh. Results Don"t demand, do to; life is a simple, calm and peaceful. Always not to choose their own path and regret, life is like a train, the scenery and then the United States will retreat, the passage of time and encounter will eventually drifting further and further away, before is always himself. 25, everyone has a weakness, weakness is true humanity. That has no weakness, a shallow person. That people think there is no weakness, mostly false. Life has shortcomings, there are shortcomings is the real life. That no one regret, or childish or numbness or Self deception. It is in tolerance of weakness and so on to accept, people live happily.

Hello, everyone! I am a party member. The title of my speech is: < study and implement the party"s two laws, doing practical play highway. 2015 October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China promulgated the implementation of the < the probity of the Communist Party of China self-discipline criterion > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and punishment regulations. We Heyuan male passers-by to respond positively to the call of the Central Committee of the party, earnestly organize the study "party two regulations", truly grasp the essence and gist, and in their respective positions, to hold the bottom line of the discipline, build a strong ideological line of defense, with the courage to play, the courage to fight tough and fearless spirit, at the crucial moment well to complete the task, with practical action to test the study and implement effect Because of discipline in the * * * * * * * * * * * story. Here, let me to cast a brick to attract jade, speak about our highway. Highway line section of the road surface transformation project, last year "towards the country seized" will be seized one of the items. To complete this arduous task, as a project management office director Comrade, keep in mind from the Communist Party membership, recognize and identify the "bottom line", strict management, and strict adherence to the quality of the project. He not only set an example, honesty and self-discipline, but also requires the management of all the members of the O.K., do not eat the construction unit one meal, do not accept the construction unit a ceremony. In this way, they didn"t really dare to adhere to the principle. No comrade, constantly put on reworking an emergency meeting to Comrade Zhen to speak louder, management tube too strict. Remember in Dongguan Street, 400 meters long cement concrete surface layer, because of various reasons, the smoothness of the poor in the bottom cavity, covering film traces and car imprinting quality problems, * * * inquiries, immediately rushed to the scene to understand and verify the situation, the convening of the management office, the construction units, supervision units, construction units, construction units construction time is tight, the economic loss and other reasons to intercede ******** unmoved. He said, "now a popular word, to the discipline and rules quite in front, there are no rules Radius, you construction team not accordance with the technical specifications, quality problems, it must be to carry out rectification. Engineering quality responsibility be weightier than Mount Tai, if we manage to this matter

Pavement quality quantity are placed the matter, we this time to learn two regulations have what use? Still what is the Communist Party? "Finally, in his insisted, the road after rework, to solve these problems. In the construction of the new comrades and the project all the colleagues efforts, after four months of fighting, the project the main project was finally completed and passed inspection. Thousands of miles of ice, thousands of miles Piao, this is a splendid and romantic scene. But snow for the highway, it is a disaster, a serious threat to the traffic safety. This year, a month, a century of cold wave swept from North to south, and the snow blowing to Guangdong, but also to bear the blow To * * * * the highway. In January on the evening of 23, Lianping county city temperatures dropped to minus 2 degrees, a wide range of sudden rain sleet, before and after the provincial S341 line in Jiulianshan Mountain tunnel sections of the road appeared in the snow, lead to the passing vehicles skid, traffic is blocked. In the face of the sudden natural disasters, city and county highway department immediately launched the emergency plan for disaster prevention. As the front line of the main force, Lianping Highway Bureau of all Party members and cadres to remember the Party member responsibility, braving the biting cold wind, the first time rushed to the scene, on the icy pavement of salt disposal. Because the temperature is too low, just melt water immediately freezes, addition to the ice work to increase the difficulty. To ensure In addition to the re organization of the depths of the traffic safety, road people braved the icy put reflective cones and warning signs, endure cold at minus 2,3 of Jiulianshan patrols until one in the morning. Just before dawn, Lianping Highway Bureau personnel on the icy road salt ice melting processing until ten o"clock, ice melting ice success, the road gradually returned to normal traffic. In the cold winter night, which people do not miss the warm bed, which people do not miss the warm home. However, our highway on the road to the owners of the masses can go home early, the night fighting to secure the avoidance of the road safety and smoothness, fulfill their responsibility. Xi General Secretary Every Party member cadre cautioned against said: blacksmith needs self hard "." two regulations ", is our own hard standard test, more exercise every party members and cadres of the fire. We should continue to strengthen the party two regulations, conscientiously in practical work, practical play road, the road for the development of the cause of Heyuan and struggle.

In the industry domain report the situation of road traffic in recent years, in the province highway departments of the concern and support, our bureau management department based on the job, loyalty duty, best service, to further promote the highway management standardization, legal, scientific and information technology to improve the management level and service quality. This will be my last work is as follows: first, around the center, go all out to greet the seizure in 2015, "meet national examination" is my bureau work. As the highway management department, we focus on the work of the center to strengthen road renovation and management as the focal point, further optimize the service environment, improve service levels. Inspection, the inspection group and the Ministry of transport, the Bureau under the leadership of the ministries and agencies highly evaluated and fully affirmed. (a) increase road area remediation efforts. The programme of work, strengthen the organization and leadership. The timely development of the city of , along the road signs and markings, traffic safety facilities, on both sides of the green, advertising signs, control area illegal construction and implementation of remediation tasks to the relevant departments, clear work time of the node to ensure rectification work timely. Set up road area special rectification work leading group, implement a bureau, the Bureau of the county (District), the project road site domain environment comprehensive improvement Mechanism. To ensure that the work carried out smoothly, the bureau also organized the city road managers participated in the regulation of road region and the relevant laws and regulations of the special training. 2. Active butt joint is reported, actively strive for the support of. Local Party committee and government support is the job

As a magic weapon, I am one of the Bureau of the principal leaders repeatedly attack inspection "remediation and road area to the principal leaders of the municipal report. * * *, the Secretary of municipal Party committee, mayor * *, * * *, vice mayor of many times the rate of the relevant departments directly under the responsible person in-depth National Highway G105 line, G205 line, provincial S341 line and the other highway project site, on-site office, coordination solve engineering construction and environmental comprehensive renovation in the presence of difficulties and problems. Last year, national highway along the county (District) government led organizations deploy traffic, urban management, public security, land, environmental protection, industry and commerce, highways and other related departments, to carry out to dismantle illegal construction and ground structures, cleaning up illegal standard Records label "as the main content of the road domain integrated environmental remediation activities and achieved good results. 3. Pay attention to comprehensive management, improve the effectiveness of remediation. Road construction control management has been strengthened. According to the relevant provisions of the laws and regulations of the < Highway Law > and < highway safety regulations for the protection of > and so on, county * *, * * County People"s Government on highway construction control area were delineated and issue a public notice, * * County People"s government also approved by the executive meeting of the government through discussion, implementation of road boundary markers of 73 million yuan of special funds input, stake setting. According to statistics, last year the city has erected building control zone peg 820, construction control area boundary markers 815 . the second is highway greening and beautification work enhance the road area remediation effectiveness. Will highway greening and beautification work as road area remediation of a key, invite garden experts to guide the design of green, the implementation of high standards for ecological landscape highway activities to create, five years, I board greening mileage of more than 900 kilometers, appropriate road greening greening rate of 100%, effectively enhance the city road greening level and grade, adds a sharp scenery line for **********. Third, rectification of illegal construction and occupation of the road has been checked. By through the town, crossing the road on many occasions to carry out concentrated rectification actions, to clear the remnants of the wall, broken Archives of highways in strict accordance with the wall of building structures and the illegal deposits, remediation along the Jeeves, Jeeves placed advertisements and vehicle maintenance, car washing and other acts, standardize and purification on both sides of the highway billboards and other non road signs, I city of national and provincial highway basic elimination of the "dirty, chaotic, poor, blocking phenomenon, highway traffic environment purification, landscaping. (2) to strengthen the management on the basic data management. The level of the archives management regulations, formulate the < file management system >, the establishment of the road, the implementation of the file manager, file collection, filing, sorting, filing, confidentiality, custody, borrow, identification pin Destroy the standardization. 2, standardized management, enhance service image (a) evaluation system to further improve in order to strengthen and standardize guidance and assessment of each county (area) bureau of highways management work, the Bureau developed a . According to the provisions of the road approval procedures and processes to carry out road license, do according to the law, the license in accordance with the law, shall be subject to examination and approval of the. Implement the collective examination and approval, to strengthen supervision. Highways and approval of business implementation of technical review of administrative approval and separation, the audit focused on the more complex involved in the road licensing matters, collective decision-making, to improve the scientific nature of the road administrative examination and approval, reduce approval corruption risks. Second is to promote the In administrative permission of information technology to improve service quality. According to the and the ministries of the Provincial Bureau of the relevant documents, I board in front of the June 2015 completed the identification of law enforcement, law enforcement station appearance, clothing of law enforcement, law enforcement documents "four unification". (5) the AILU nursing atmosphere further formation of my bureau attaches great importance to the propaganda work of highway management "road awareness month" into , < highway Ann Quanbao supporting regulations > legal text, a total of 500 this. The second is to carry out "12.4" national legal advocacy day activities, the city road officers go deep among the masses interpretation of highway Highways Management laws, regulations and policy advocacy, analysis for illegal construction at both sides of the road, a typical case of illegal advertising management, showing public road construction and maintenance of highways The actual results of the management, the masses love protection consciousness and social awareness to further enhance the enforcement of highways.

In recent years, I board in the highway management work were some beneficial explorations and the attempt, and achieved initial results, but there is still a certain gap compared with requirements of the Provincial Bureau and other brothers City, we will to implement the party"s spirit of the Fifth Plenary Session of the eighth session of the opportunity, and further increase the intensity of road management work, and constantly improve the overall quality of the workforce and the ability to learn, and strive to achieve the new highway across.

Today the topic of democratic life will I talk about the main to correctly treat leave turn ensure transition delicate gas is understanding, to carry out criticism and self-criticism, in-depth to find problems, profound analysis of the causes, through self analysis to find their own existence problem, to correctly understand their own, strengthen the party spirit training, to ensure that the election of smoothly and successfully completed. Below I talk about their own situation, please put forward valuable opinion. Main understanding (a) serious discipline, to create a delicate gas is in the general environment in accordance with the Central Commission for discipline inspection organs, < of Organization Department of CPC Central Committee on strengthening the election of the notice of customs supervision >, municipal < on doing a good job City Township leadership transition in the notification > and county Party Committee Organization Department of the county Party Committee Organization Department < on the convening of the correct treatment leave turn ensure transition Fengqing gas is a feature of democratic life notice > files related to the spirit of the requirements, earnestly implement the "nine is prohibited, nine shall be" the solemn discipline, I earnestly study the < Chinese Communist Party principle of honesty and self-discipline >. < Chinese Communist Party Disciplinary Regulations >, < promote leading cadre of some regulations >, < party and government leading cadres selection and appointment Regulations > and file, and a profound understanding of the nine is prohibited, a nine law "discipline essence and firmly safeguard the election of serious Ensure the unhealthy tendencies have successfully completed, and actively create a delicate gas is the election of environment, to ensure that the election, so as to further strengthen the town leadership and cadre team construction. Through the study, in-depth thinking, to a serious discipline the importance and necessity of a more profound understanding. First, it is the iron discipline. The central put forward the "nine is prohibited, nine shall be the reason for early serious general discipline, designated" high-voltage wire, "itself reflects the party committees at all levels of the reelection of attaches great importance to the objective is bright resolute attitude, the implementation of effective measures, the same candidate to fight with discipline election of wind Discipline in gas is health. Secondly, this is prevenient. From some typical cases, we can see that individual cadres election to engage in speculative hack canvassing votes, in violation of discipline, and ultimately paid a high price. The destruction of Hengyang election case and Nanchong canvassing bribery case that strengthen election discipline, serious election discipline of necessity and importance. The discipline of publicity to the public, wide report, that is, early warning, early hit precautionary needle, tell the cadres should do what shouldn"t do, what to do and what not to do, and better education of cadres, warning cadres, and build a strong line of defense, to avoid the occurrence of similar problems. There is duty. Serious discipline, with a strong team is an important starting point. As the leadership of the party members and cadres, take the lead in the implementation and take the lead in upholding the election of discipline, which is a major political responsibility. Must be clear requirements, strict constraints themselves, cherish the honor, safeguard the image of the organization; promote righteousness, play an exemplary role. Especially as deputy Township, but also to give a full play to its role, always stand in the discipline of first-line maintenance. The wind Su Ji through the election of the work of the whole process. (II) serious discipline, treat correctly leave turn as a cadre of the party, whether it is in, is back, stay, turn are organization

Metabolism of entrepreneurial career, need and development need. So, his first with a broad mind to treat "leave turn". The position is officer positions, power for the people service tools. Different positions of the party"s cause, plays a decisive role, the same important. To ability strong, style of comrade to important positions and applause, is full of vigor and vitality and promising young cadres in leadership and cheer for their own "leave turn" and calmly face, calm place. Second is to a healthy state of mind to treat "leave turn". The personnel of metabolic, between the past and the present. Cadre new old alternant, team, push In the party constitution control strict working to career development objective need, is never the end of the historical process. Each a cadre must face up to the laws of nature to think we also took the former relay baton "go on leadership post, regardless of the current positions, positions and responsibilities have what change, can do for peace of mind and mood, such as water, in a happy mood. (3) carefully and find out the problem, correct understanding of themselves, even though they do conscientious, serious attitude, honesty in politics, but high standard < >, the control standard, especially control learning, striving for excellent activities emerge in large numbers of advanced characters, advanced deeds Static not consciously practice the "strict three real" and strengthen the party spirit accomplishment to find the gap, swing is insufficient, a clear direction, mainly manifested in the following aspects: one is the learning initiative and self-consciousness. Often busy with work as an excuse, not consciously take the initiative to spare time to learn. Is often superior to learn what to learn what, and work closely to learn, and working relationship is not less to learn. Mainly manifested in the theoretical study is not thorough, system is not thorough, the Marxism Leninism, Mao Zedong thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory and "Three Represents" important thought, the scientific concept of development and learning, general secretary of the series of speech learning, just from the surface on learning In the less less less and not deep enough, not from the deeper study, to study, to understand, to sentiment, to use, to guide the work. The second is to investigate the research. This year their participation in the county, the county government"s important meeting, the town Party work time is more, coupled with the specific affairs busy, in-depth primary research time reduced. The inspection was carried out research activities, there are surface examination, thematic research, listen to reports and discussion research, the general requirements and specific guidance, in a certain extent, affected the timely discovery and solve. Third is the level of leadership, leadership and need to be further improved. Stroke the personnel selection is positive, work coordination and cooperation can"t to the best effect; in the coordination to deal with some complex problems, the approach is not enough. Especially encountered, time is tight, the task is heavy, is often the soldiers to be blocked, the water to soil cover, struggling to cope with. The global and forward-looking innovation is not enough. (4) to ensure that the transition delicate gas selected loyal to the party loyal to the people of leading cadres (recommended) for the county to provide accurate information to ensure the transition in the air, after the general election of work have a greater change. The second is balanced, promote the work in an orderly manner. In the future a period of time, the transition will be in the county under the leadership of the Extended surface. And breeding industry and the construction of key projects also in actively, they have to seriously consider, overall transition and key projects to promote. Education team members and the town, village cadres actively participate in industry cultivate the work, with outstanding achievements to accept the assessment of test of the organization and the masses of the people, in the town set up promising is a strong general business and the right atmosphere general election, do election and projects to promote the two not mistake, the promotion of two. Second, the rectification measures

One is to enhance learning, awareness raising, he will continue to strengthen learning, improve the level of awareness, their own unity of thought and action to the county, township party committee of arrangements for the election. The second is correctly, strengthen discipline, own the right of transition, a matter of personal leave turn, as a town, deputy secretary of Party committee, themselves are fully aware of the only serious work, strict demands on themselves in order to not negative expectations of organizations and the masses, so that individuals can well deal with good transition in personal leave turn. Three people on the election promise as Deputy Secretary of the Party committee, in the election of my solemn commitment to Catch: if a is strictly abide by and take the lead in the implementation of the "nine is prohibited, nine" transition discipline, not to engage in cliques, not to engage in canvassing votes buying and selling, buying, and no fraud swindlers officer, do not intercede say hello, not illegal, not to run gas leak, do not interfere with changing times, accomplish strict discipline, warning, with iron discipline firmly put unhealthy trends, promote delicate gas to ensure transition in the healthy and orderly development; the second is resolutely obey organization arrangement, and resolutely to stress the party spirit, principle, discuss overall situation, correctly treat personal leave turn, the correct treatment the election results and focus on their careers, from start to finish, ensure the normal and orderly develop.

For in-depth study and implement the party"s eighteen, the eighth session of the fourth, the spirit of the fifth plenary session, the implementation of comprehensive strictly required, a solid grasp of the construction of Party member team, in accordance with the requirements of the county Party Committee Organization Department No. 3 (2016) Luo Zufa. According to the requirements of the < Chinese Communist Party Constitution > and the central work of education for the party members, combined with actual town, 2016 Party member education and training scheme is formulated. The guiding ideology adhere to a comprehensive study of implementing the scientific development view as guidance, in-depth study and implement the party"s eighteen, the eighth session of the fourth, fifth plenary session and the General Secretary Xi Jinping series important Speech adhere to the application for promoting learning, and strive to improve our ideological and political quality of Party members; firmly establish catch a party to build pipe must be members, tube members first catch education of ideological understanding, close to the Party member"s ideological and practical work, strive to build a party regular education work mechanism, promote the party members play a vanguard and exemplary role; firmly grasp the construction of ability of administration of strengthening the party, advanced nature and purity of construction of the main line, adhere to to enhanced grasp the party building work consciousness, strengthen the self construction of the party organizations as the fundamental starting point, for the town"s economic and social development provided for ideological and political guarantee of the strong and powerful organization guarantee. Second, target 201 The main task of 6 years of education and training of Party members is earnestly implement the (Luo Wei do [2015] 121) to further strengthen the work of the education and training of Party members request, to training the town, the grassroots party members and common. From 5 January 2016, through a variety of channels in a variety of forms in a planned, step by step, to focus on the organization to carry out the education and training of Party members. A party spirit idea generally enhanced. Through education and training, prompting the majority of Party members to further strengthen the ideal and faith, enhance the party concept, consciously practice the agency will socialist core value system. To further enhance the confidence of the road of socialism with Chinese characteristics, theoretical system of self-confidence and confidence. (II) Party members working ability greatly improved. Through the development of education and training, to boost the knowledge structure of Party members transformation and upgrading, improve the party to use the Marxist stand, viewpoints and methods of analysis and problem solving ability, adapt to the new situation and new tasks. (3) play an effective role of Party member model. Through the development of training and education, promote the party members in theProduction, work, learning and service to the community in give full play to the exemplary vanguard role, and actively striving to take the lead in learning to improve and take the lead in striving for success, serving the masses to take the lead and lead law-abiding, take the lead in promoting the healthy atmosphere model. (4) the building of grassroots organizations strong impetus. Through the development of education and training, the Party member troop overall quality and ability to serve the people increased, grass-roots party organization"s creativity, cohesion and combat effectiveness of the improved. Contents and measures according to different type of the town, at different levels, the actual needs of the different positions of Party members, hierarchical class to carry out the education and training of Party members. Adhere to the town overall and please tutoring, please Come in and sent down the combination, to the party spirit education and ability cultivation as the center, overall constitution and discipline, the core value system, political theory, domestic and international situation in town situation, party organization construction, legal education, culture, science and technology, industrial development, management, resource management and protection, social management innovation in the aspects, to village (unit) as a unit, to all members of the organization a above rotation activities. Focus on Township and village committee cadres straight unit leading Party group secretary, activist of join or be admitted to the party, the education and training of village class mothball cadre training, efforts to strengthen the parties organization Secretary of party spirit accomplishment, do a good job of the consciousness of the party building work, enhanced the Party activist , people in rural areas to promote rural economic development of practical abilities. At the same time, through the development of the theme of practical training, autonomous learning training, make full use of the party members and cadres of modern distance education network etc., for the party members in various fields to carry out the classification of rotation, party spirit training, tobe grind quality, improve quality. Organizational Leadership (a) strengthen leadership, implement the responsibility. Town Party committee to the work of the education and training of Party members into the party building work important content, the overall responsibility of the Secretary of the Party committee, vice secretary of the lead and the implementation of specific members of the organization, the organizational Secretary of the parties to personally plan, personally deploy, supervise the implementation; the education and training of Party members to carry out into the grass-roots party Construction work responsibility system and the building of grassroots organizations special assessment, directly with the grass-roots party organizations Pingxianpingyou link, to strengthen the organization and leadership to do a good job of work to implement. (II) the overall progress, implement the plan. Ensure that the deployment, according to the arrangement of the 2016 Party member education and training plans, based on the actual needs of the party, on-demand rationing; do supervision and guidance, strengthen the supervision of the work of the education and training of Party members, guidance and services to help solve the difficulties and problems in the training; assessment, by listening to the report, information search, evaluation, etc., with emphasis on the assessment of the implementation of the plan, Party members to participate in training proportion and effect, indeed Protect task implementation. (3) the typical guide, step up publicity. Pay attention to cultivate advanced and typical, timely promotion and the typical experience of the characteristics of the practice. The work of the education and training of Party members as the focus of the grass-roots party building and the sector skills training for communication and advocacy, by setting the column, offering special journals and other forms of propaganda, to create a strong atmosphere of public opinion, promote the orderly conduct of the work and achieved certain results.

In order to further implement the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of major speeches about the party"s work style and clean government and anti-corruption struggle spirit and the central, province, city, County Commission for Discipline Inspection and the spirit of the plenary session, to further strengthen the awareness of the loyal party members and cadres, sense of purpose, sense of responsibility and a sense of discipline, boost the county"s economic and social development. In accordance with the ensemble [of Ji Qing 2016) spirit of the document No. 3, combined with my bureau actual, make this program of activities, and a theme of learning party discipline, strict discipline, boosting Qingshen development.

Second, activity time April 2016 1 - April 30, three, activity content (a) carry out party discipline learning activities. Global organization of cadres and workers to focus on learning, network learning, self-study and other forms of strengthen constitution < < the probity of the Communist Party of China self-discipline criterion "" Chinese Communist Party disciplinary Regulations >, < Xi Jinping on clean government and anti-corruption fight discusses excerpts > and other relevant information learning. Education for Party members and cadres to < code > < Regulations > as the ruler, combined with its work, measure, control and their own ideas and practical test, take the initiative to conduct Lianzheng is affirmatory consciously practice commitment, achieve the hearts of the party, Zun Jishou Confessions of readings of the Si > < confessions to carry out the hearts of the people, in the heart has the responsibility, in the heart has quit, maintain the party"s advanced nature and purity. (2) to carry out special warning education activities. In the global "read < > writing experience, the concept of warning education independent micro film > reflections, prisons and courtroom free" as the main content of the special warning education activities. Use of the weekly worker will focus to watch a warning education. The < >, cadres and workers to write their feelings, reflections, and the clean publicity column posted; 4 month global organization of Party members and cadres to the eyebrow delta prison visits to detainees xianshenshuifa education of cadres and workers With low-cost combined with special method. (3) to teach a class of anti-corruption initiate cheap course. By the leaders of anti corruption and financial supervision and administration of state-owned assets of explain the profound things in a simple way to explain, so that all staff of honest business, according to the law to act in a more profound understanding, so as to enhance staff"s sense of responsibility and sense of mission. (4) to promote innovation to help the family activities. To carry out the party members and cadres "motto, bright family traditions" activities for family education into harmony, filial piety, encouraging learning, goodness, thrifty, inspirational, cultivation of excellent genes to guide Party members and cadres to good tradition folk, with a good tradition being honest, with good tradition promote political winds, creating a delicate gas is the general atmosphere. Four activities (a) to strengthen leadership, careful organization. One is the establishment of the "independent warning education month" activities leading group of the state owned Financial Bureau, bureau leading Party group secretary of the leader, board members of the team to serve as deputy head. The second is making < County State Owned Financial Bureau independent warning education activities month scheme > determine promotional content, clear steps, truly understanding, measures, and put in place, ensure the effectiveness of the activities. (II) take all factors into consideration, pay attention to actual effect. According to "strict three real special education and" two studies do "activities, in based on the provisions of the action without aliasing, and creativity to carry out various forms, rich and colorful activities, and strive to Pay attention to actual effect, and resolutely prevent, going through the motions, really promote the party members and cadres from the depths of the ideological solidating abide by discipline regulations of the defence. (3) strengthening propaganda, to create atmosphere. To make full use of the column publicity, propaganda position of network, increase publicity efforts, expand warning education activities of the coverage and influence.

Today, we hold the city"s precise technology to poverty alleviation and project work to promote the meeting, the main purpose is to further promote the task of aiding the poor with technology roots and accelerate all kinds of scientific and technological projects. Last year, this year, the city"s scientific and technological work has made remarkable achievements, such as the convening of national poverty alleviation of science and technology on the spot will, cultivate high-tech enterprises, Bashan scholar training and the introduction of scientific and technical personnel incentives, listing national agricultural science and Technology Park, science and technology incubator building. Just now, Huangli In recent years city science and technology to help the poor and science and technology project effectiveness, the main problems were analyzed, and in a period of time in the future, the city"s precise technology to poverty alleviation and science and technology project work arrangements, I agree, I hope everyone to earnestly implement. Here, I stressed the three points.

Learning "learning", to carry out the "learning and doing" education as the city"s innovation and development of an important driving force. The Party Central Committee decided to 2016 years in all Party members to carry out learning the party constitution, party rules, a series of speech, do a qualified party member education (referred to as "learning to do"). Some time ago, I called the "learning the party constitution, party rules, a series of speech, do a qualified party member education and mobilization, the province carried out within the" two a "learning education mobilization. Municipal Party committee will soon be held a mobilization will make arrangements for the deployment. To carry out the" two a "study and education, based on" learning ", key in" do ". As the science and Technology Department of cadres and workers, to (benchmark for two pilot demonstration study through studying the party constitution of party compasses, a series of speech, not only to do a qualified party members, to do a good job of science and technology innovation. Next week, I as the city"s county-level leading cadres reading class open cooperation and innovation driven study group members went to Mianyang, Meishan national innovation driven development characteristics and the province"s Innovation Driven Development Zone work experience, a great harvest, feeling very deep. Mianyang, Meishan city innovation driven strength is very great, especially is Mianyang has become civil military integration, a comprehensive reform and innovation, our benchmarking in Mianyang, the gap is very large. Mianyang Science and technology city construction as the basis, built around the "Five" goal of building Hotbed of innovation of construction science and technology, military and civilian fusion demonstration, collecting and distributing center of scientific and technological achievements, innovative talents convergence and high technology industry concentration), vigorously promote to military and civilian fusion for the characteristics of comprehensive reform pilot innovation, and achieved remarkable results, is toward the national civil military integration innovation demonstration area, the national innovation driven development characteristics demonstration area and western economic development growth emerging great step forward. The expanding Park, stronger innovation platform; incubated enterprises, cultivate innovation; poly talent, to improve the ability of innovation; promoting fusion, highlighting the characteristics of the innovation; catch open, form innovation efforts of the experience is worth learning from. Benchmarking advanced, we have to struggling to The amount of weight is to grasp to catch the strategic innovation. To improve the target oriented system. The innovation actually placed in the core position, firmly establish the "grasping innovation development, seek innovation is to seek the future, innovation is not backward, slow innovation also will lag behind" concept, accelerate factor driven to innovation driven change. City Branch Bureau to actively seek the city management system emphasizing the innovation driven development, focus on strengthening the scientific and technological enterprise incubator construction, scientific and technological innovation platform, technology oriented small and medium-sized enterprises to cultivate, high and new technology industry output value and product evaluation. Second, we must built innovation and Entrepreneurship platform. The city will be in Pakistan and the open area to build the whole To confidence, "double center", the new industrial park for a period, the city public entrepreneurship Park Phase II, Qin Ba electricity supplier industry park for three period, incubation area of more than 50 million square meters. The county (District) to take advantage of idle assets of construction science and technology enterprise incubator, a passenger space and other new public record space, the formation of a, a, a, to create vivid situation. Third, we must foster technological innovation subject. To vigorously implement the "high and new technology enterprise doubling plan" and "science and technology oriented small and medium-sized enterprises to cultivate plan", to honor the implementation of tax incentives, financial subsidies, such as a package of policies to support, so that high technology enterprise "indomitable spirit", let the small and medium-sized enterprise "overwhelming". To increase investment in science and technology innovation. To actively seek special funds for the development of Municipal Science and technology part for cashing innovation drive the development of financial subsidy policy, transfer a portion of funds for science and technology enterprises of loan guarantees and interest subsidies. Encourage banking institutions set up science and technology branch of the franchise, push the patent pledge loan, for the small and medium sized enterprises of science and technology provide financing services tailored. Fifth, we must strengthen science and technology personnel. To attract more technology military personnel and high-end talent with technology, project, with funds to Bazhong Lingban or joint science and technology enterprises, encourage and support both inside and outside the citycomrades and the5 years of college graduates and college students to a new public space, science and technology business incubator innovation and entrepreneurship.

Second, it is necessary to promote the precision technology poverty alleviation as the important content of the scientific and technological work. To build a well-off society in an all-round way by 2020 is the party"s eighteen to the whole Party and the people throughout the country to make a solemn commitment. Lead the city people out of poverty to become rich go straight towards well-off, Party committees at all levels, political responsibility and mission of the times of the government"s major political, technology sector is also the bounden responsibility. Municipal three tenth plenary session made < on the go all out win battle poverty alleviation and development to ensure synchronous completion of a comprehensive well-off society decided >, proposed to further promote the "five a group of" precise action to help the poor, "six precision" and "1 + 6" poverty alleviation projects, clear the "add Great science and technology achievement transformation efforts, accelerate the construction science and technology poverty demonstration village and demonstration households, give full play to the role of modern information network, for the impoverished village poor households to provide production technology, market information, policy advice, encourage scientific and technical personnel to the poor village launched a to one helping and guiding the development of income industrial projects, strengthen technical training and propaganda of popular science, highlighting grasp large breeding, family farmers, agricultural co-operatives are the backbone of the training "technical poverty alleviation mission. The city"s science and technology sector must be from the political height, the assault fortified positions that help deficient up as the most important task, the most urgent work. The most arduous mission, to science and technology for precise poverty alleviation promote to speed up a well-off society in an all-round way Decision to deploy, boost the process to precise technology to poverty alleviation and the effectiveness of a well off society in an all round way. One should obey the overall situation. The city"s scientific and technological system of cadres and workers, especially leading cadres, should have the political consciousness, ideological conscious action conscious, in accordance with the central, provincial and municipal deployment requirements, to strengthen the organization and leadership, reasonable arrangement of time, carefully study the deployment, to ensure poverty. There must be resolutely implement the political position and character, poverty alleviation and the attitude to be distinctive, poverty alleviation action should be strong, to politics, to understand the overall situation, re implementation, see results. To lock the target. In accordance with the provincial Party committee and the municipal Party committee, municipal government, lock 2 provincial-level General requirements for the completion of the goal of poverty alleviation poverty alleviation poverty alleviation poverty alleviation poverty alleviation poverty alleviation and Technology Demonstration County, four provincial science and technology demonstration towns, 10 provincial science and technology demonstration village and a municipal science and technology demonstration area, 2 Municipal Science and technology demonstration towns, five municipal science and technology demonstration village and the "five one" precise technology to poverty alleviation and special operations tasks, inverted duration, wall chart battle, set the time, tasks, measures, staff, given the responsibility to ensure high quality precision technology poverty alleviation task. To focus on the key. To focus on precise poverty and accurate out of poverty, detailed measures, clear job responsibilities, to develop targeted and operable precise technology to implement poverty alleviation program. Prominent precise poverty technical training, poor village informatization construction, technology oriented poverty reduction model village and demonstration households construction precision technology poverty alleviation focus, in a precise sense, precise attitude, precise style, go all out to fight the precise technology of poverty alleviation and battle.

Three, it is necessary to strengthen science and technology funds supervision as an important means to enhance the quality of the project. Science and technology project fund supervision is the key to the implementation of the project of science and technology. In recent years, especially during the "Twelfth Five Year Plan" period, the system of science and technology management in the city vigorously to declare the implementation of the country and province science and technology projects, science and technology demonstration lead brought obvious effect and improve the scientific and technological innovation capability of enterprises, boosting the characteristics and advantages of industrial development, science and technology support to the economic and social leading role improved significantly. In the project management of science and technology, in addition to seriously implement the state, provincial science and technology project management rules and regulations, and the actual Bazhong, established the access system of science and technology projects, the project of science and technology commissioner system, science and technology Project credit system and scientific and technological projects honest commitment system, and the Municipal Finance Bureau jointly issued the > < Bazhong City Science and technology development funds management approach, formulated the "trilogy of seven" science and technology project implementation specification, these are worth fully affirmed. However, we should also see clearly, we in the science and technology project management still exist "account of the special accounts, earmarking system is no effective implementation and other issues. In particular, this year the Audit Commission Chengdu Tepai ban on Bazhong confidence found in the audit of science and technology business incubatorProblem has certain representativeness. The audit to us sounded the alarm, should cause everyone vigilance. Here, I will strengthen science and technology project budget supervision put forward four requirements: a strict project reporting, prevent fraud. Implementation of the project to declare the competition mechanism, the annual financial support to science and technology projects oriented society Bulletin, conditions open content, open competition to declare, open field investigation, public presentations, the public assessment of the decision, do full open and transparent, fair, accept social supervision. To those who resort to deceit or something real is not clear, suspected of defrauding, impersonator national subsidy funds, once found immediately cancel Declaration of qualification, recovery of funds subsidy and discipline in accordance with the law strictly held responsible. Second, we must innovation funds supervision. In county finance to establish science and technology project "account", the project undertaking entity in accordance with the key nodes task completion by formal invoice to apply for funding and audited by the Department of science and technology, the Ministry of finance funds, and resolutely put an end to project funds are retained, misuse and misappropriation. Third, we need to strengthen scientific and technological project supervision. Department in charge of science and technology to strengthen project inspections to check or checks, of ineffective implementation to strengthen the supervision and the existence of violations of responsibility into the project undertaker rectification. To establish a scientific and technological project, "black list" system, the Project implementation quality particularly poor recorded in the "black list", stage or permanent abolition of the applicant country, province, city science and technology project qualification. Fourth, it is necessary to carry out training funds management. Science City Bureau to the initiative to meet with the finance department, organize project unit commitment held science and technology project funds management training, of country, provincial and municipal science and technology project funds management of the relevant policies, financial acceptance specification, mid supervision points, budget review points and key contents were training system, to ensure the use of project funds safe and reasonable.

Thank you all!

To implement the central, provincial, city and county to make important decision about the grass-roots party construction work in the deployment, push forward the county public security organs in the work of Party building, further strengthen the party secretary of the governing party and party liability, according to < of the Organization Department of CPC Committee of Xuchang County on the issuance of the "counties as well as the authority of Party building debriefing appraisal implementation solutions" notice > requirements, according to the arrangement of the Bureau of the party work. Today, the organization held the county public security organs party secretary grasping grass-roots party construction work in the debriefing will. The implementation of this is a powerful measure to the Secretary of the party organization construction of the party,, and is learning to carry out the party"s spirit of the Fifth Plenary Session of the eighth session of the, grasp the new situation of Party building work under the rules, pushing Public security party building services in the public security center of the inevitable requirement.

Just now, the 3 Juzhu unit Party branch secretary of debriefing, below I on the 3 party organization work one by one review.

Party branch of the Political Department

Good: first, strengthen ideological and political work, pay close attention to the work of the implementation. The Political Department of the Party branch strictly in accordance with the requirements of bureau Party committee, to "strict three real special education as the main line, take effective measures, pay close attention to the ideological and political work of the implementation, strengthen the education of Party members and the police thought, improve the Police Ideological and political consciousness, make a solid foundation for public security work smooth development of health. Second, strict management team, boost the morale of the team. Strict implementation of Police Ideological Trend of periodic analysis, timely grasp the ideological situation of the personnel; strictly implement the system of check on work attendance, strengthen the daily management; cash rewards and punishments, continue to boost the morale of the team. The third is The intensification of police training, improve the police actual combat skill. Seriously and actively carry out a series of training activities and < Henan public security network, > learning activities, the majority of police in the political quality, physical quality, professional quality, policing skills improved. The fourth is to adhere to the preferential treatment from the police, the warm pool police. According to thRequirements, and actively do a good job of personnel management work, to run within the scope of the policy, help the police solve the practical difficulties, the police systemic heart into work. The fifth is strengthening propaganda, promote righteousness. Around the center of the public security work, actively do a good job in the publicity, fully display the spirit of good public security team. Six is to fulfill the responsibility of Party building, do a good job of education and management of Party member team. Sound and perfect "three class", Party of democratic appraisal, commendation and reward system, effectively enhance the branch of the creativity, cohesion and fighting capacity.

Shortcomings: is ideological and political work still can not adapt to the new situation, new task, in the form of a single, innovation is not enough, lack of learning education of the appeal and study the effect of education needs to be improved, the political department to strengthen the guidance to the grass-roots units. The second is the branch of organizational life will implement the is not good enough to play an exemplary role.

Traffic Police Brigade Party branch

System of good practice: one is grasping the implementation of the work of Party building system, enhanced branch team cohesion, combat force. The brigade Party branch always pay close attention to the work of Party building and would not let go, conscientiously perform their duties, strict implementation of democratic life etc., to develop the branch of learning plan, all equipped with learning record the experience and experience the and organize regular inspection learning, ensures that the learning plan, implement, effect. Second is to carry out the "strict three real special education. The development of special education learning scheme, held a party branch focus on learning and the level of consultation forum, deputy director in charge of, brigade leader for the party members and the police on the lectures, deployed to carry out Ban Zicheng throughout the Yan Zhenchang Yang Shuicai to relive the oath to join the party, visit the memorial hall, learning advanced characters, micro lectures attention and learning characteristics of the activities, and to develop measures for rectification. Three is to pay attention to the party building work into the public security work. The brigade Party branch and always will be the work of Party building in 9.3 security, national civilized city re examination, the SCO security meeting, the focus of illegal investigation, "sword", "anti terrorist violence, to ensure safety", "five wave", "camp turn non bus", "detoxification", the focus of the work, in a timely manner to carry out the pre war mobilization, wartime dynamically judged, the post-war award in recognition of a series of measures Members always fighting in the first line of traffic management, all traffic police has always maintained a high state of mind, a strong impetus to the work carried out.

Shortcomings: first, there is a "hand hard and soft" phenomenon. Of work of Party building under the new situation is not enough emphasis, focus on light business building, re form light effects. The second is measures are not enough effective. In particular, catch a party to build working innovation consciousness is not strong, measures and methods used in the experience of the old, old practices and effectiveness needs to be further strengthened. The third is three lesson "not very good insist, life of the party organization to carry out less often.

Zhao police station Party branch

Good practice: one is to strengthen the study and education. To "strict three real special education as an opportunity to take leadership lectures, seminars, individual learning, exchange of experience in various forms, the police organization learning leaders at all levels of the spirit of the important speech, < > in the constitution as well as the side of corruption cases and asked party members and the police carefully recorded study notes, writing experiences, join and pay attention to the micro lectures, according to the control requirements of inspection, enhance their own, to ensure that the learning effect. The second is to strengthen the leadership responsibility. Party branch secretary as the first responsibility of honest government, earnestly implement the" four person ", and insisted on the" important work personally Department Department, major issues personally intervene, personally key aspects of coordination, supervision of important cases personally ", Party branch members always strict demands on themselves, play an exemplary role model. Third, strengthen the service for the people. Every act of the masses for the warm reception, carefully recorded masses anti reflect each a problem, and make the resistancee bureau Party committeeHeart to answer, and constantly improve the quality of service. Combined with the "one village, one police work, police organization carefully touch row all may affect the stability of the unstable factors, resolve conflicts and disputes, and arrange for the police with daily visits, issued security leaflets, collecting sites, personnel information, promote the harmony police.

Existing problems: a party branch team party affairs knowledge is not rich enough, on some of the procedural provisions are not familiar with, in a certain extent restricted the work carried out. The second is regular ideological education is not deep enough, the ideological trends of the police command is not timely and accurate. Third, there is a need to improve the management level of refinement, police standardization awareness is not strong enough, daily habit is not quite self-conscious.

Since this year, bureau unit Party branch to "strict three real special education as the main line, to the service center, troop construction as the focus, adhere to the combination of ideological building of the party and the system of the party, solid to carry out the comprehensive strictly required, to further standardize the construction of the party organization, continuously improving the quality of Party members and police, continue to strengthen the party building innovation, service building execution significantly improved, has made remarkable achievements.

Meeting debriefing of 3 units in the work of Party building problems in other units are also different degrees of existence to other units by the party building debriefing, draw on the experience of face the problem, replicability, careful analysis of rectification, promote the sustained and healthy development of the work of Party building units.

Below, to further strengthen the county public security organs party building work stressed the views of five points.

One, improve the ideological understanding, enhance the sense of political responsibility and historical mission

Follow the basic construction of the party"s eighteen years, Xi Jinping, general secretary: the series of important speech to the party put forward many new ideas, new judgment, the new requirements is to promote grass-roots party building work. We should thoroughly study and understand, and consciously assume responsibility. One is to grasp the party building "three questions" of the new requirements. Xi, general secretary of the party"s mass line education practice summary of the General Assembly on the proposed the construction of "three questions, namely:" is not the party committees at all levels and the departments of Party committees (party) to achieve the sedulous catch a party to build is not at all levels of Party committee secretary, the Department of the party committees (party) secretary become strictly administering the party secretary? Is not at all levels and all departments of the party Forced the construction of Party committees (party) members to fulfill the responsibilities strictly responsibility? "General Secretary of the party building" three questions ", directed at the crucial point, enlightening, three mirror placed in front of everyone, let you according to a photo, see a look, want to think about the conscious of it, is the three pieces of papers placed in front of us, it is clear to judge ourselves whether in to do their duty. Building" three questions ", urge people to watch, thought-provoking, and convey a strong responsibility to ask signal. The second is to understand the building" three no "new judgment. Xi, general secretary of the party"s mass line education practice summary congress pointed out that" history and reality Are accounted for in the police forces of discipline, do not do, is to stop the event tells us, not a clear responsibility to implement the responsibility, accountability, and strictly administering the party is not to ". General Secretary of the" three no ", a clear responsibility to implement the responsibility, accountability, and point out the key. The county public security organs is a team of the Communist Party as the main body, Party members and the vast majority of bureau of belonging to different units of the leadership cadres and backbone of the party members, the power and responsibility are relatively concentrated in the party"s construction, must be clear responsibilities, the implementation of responsibility, accountability, or catch a party to build is an empty word. Three is to clear the" three grasping "new initiatives. The total learning book Remember that catch a party to build must grasp the responsibility system, grasping accountability must grab the responsibility person, grasping the responsibility must catch the first responsible person. Why should we let the Bureau unit Party branch secretary of the debriefing is to implement general secretary put forward "3 catch". To seize the party organization"s primary responsibility, seize the key issue.

Two, the full implementation of the task of ideological construction, the theory of armed tasks implementedGeneral Secretary Xi Jinping in the mass line of educational practice summary congress put forward in the new period party building thought of tasks and requirements, to strengthen the construction of the Party pointed out the direction and path. One is to strengthen theoretical study. The urgent task is to fully understand the study and implement the spirit of the fifth plenary session of the eighth session of the significance of, the organization of Party members and the police through the focus on learning, self-study and special counseling and other forms of serious in-depth learning, adhere to the first step in learning, deep layer, accurately grasp the spirit of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee, and do the thinking and learning gains, use it. The second is to strengthen the party spirit temperance. Adhere to the school party constitution. Through the center of the group learning. Secretary of the party organization about lectures and other forms of learning the party constitution, enlightenment spirit, guide Bureau unit Party branch and all members of the police to firmly establish the consciousness of the party. Persist in learning advanced. Vigorously carry forward the spirit of Jiao Yulu, Yang Shuicai spirit, seriously study the advanced deeds of Comrade Yan Zhenchang, deep fine shine Dusing the police party guided, to strengthen public opinion and public servant consciousness, consciously practice the "strict three real. The third is to strengthen the party and Party discipline education. For the ideological construction of the party faces new tasks, new requirements, the emergence of many new problems, new situations, and actively take the initiative to adapt to the constantly emancipate the mind, innovative ways, making use of the Internet, micro channel, micro Bo new platform for new, enrich the content of education, improve education forms, the constant reminder education, enhance the police Party discipline in awe, guide Party members and the police do political understanding discipline about the rules of the leaders. The fourth is to strengthen the ideological and moral education. Guide the party police exemplary practice the socialist core values, cultivate good political and moral character, professional ethics, family virtue and morality, forming a strong atmosphere of moral construction. Pay attention to strengthen the positive guidance to the police party ideology, adhere to the diversification of the social ideology guided by the system of theories of socialism with Chinese characteristics, improving and perfecting the Party members and the police thought The dynamic analysis of mechanism, providing an ideological guarantee for the purity and firmness of team members.

Three, fully implement the strict requirements, the management and administration of the party"s responsibility to implement

General Secretary Xi Jinping stressed that to implement strictly the responsibility, do a good job of Party building as the biggest achievement. Therefore, in my bureau implement comprehensive strictly required must be the party tube responsible party implemented. First, to further implement the responsibility system in Party building. To establish and improve the party building responsibility assessment mechanism, at the beginning of the year to progressively signing party builds working target responsibility book. Party organizations at all levels is mainly responsible for comrades to do a good job of Party building as the greatest achievements, adhere to the development wholeheartedly for, to concentrate its attention on the construction of the party, the party building work is included in the agenda, and business to work with the deployment, with checks, with the implementation of, true to form Party grasping, Secretary to take the lead in efforts, in charge of the leadership Specific catch, catch a, layers of implementation pattern of Party building work. Is to improve the reporting and appraising system. In accordance with the "debriefing the party building, the appraisal rating of Party building, Party building assessment test, use of cadres at request of the party", CF county Party debriefing practice, and constantly improve the annual party built debriefing appraisal system, in particular, to the year debriefing appraisal evaluation and annual comprehensive examination closely together, the party builds the job evaluation results into the leading bodies and leading cadres of the annual comprehensive assessment system, strengthen the use of dynamic management and results of debriefing appraisal work, further enhance the debriefing appraisal of scientific, effective and directive The new integration business. Three is to improve the "three class" system. "Three class" system is to improve the party"s organizational life, strict party member education management system, we must do a good job in the implementation and long-term persistence. According to "the party secretary of the organization lectures", "party members and cadres micro lectures and Thematic Party Day activities, innovation" three class "form, rich" three class "content, pay attention to the work of Party building with the public security work, the formation of" the same resonance frequency, the linkage of communion "party organization life situation. At the same time, the" three class "system implementation of join or be admitted to the party organization committee debriefing appraisal of important content, strict grasp the" three class "system Real.

Four, strict political discipline and political rules.

Guide all Party members and the police in ideological political action always as the general secretary of the CPC Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping highly consistent, involved in major political principle, political stand, political views and other issues, we must be sober, stand firm. Guide the members of the civilian police to strengthen the sense of organization, determined to do the individual is subordinate to the organization, the minority is subordinate to the majority, the lower level to the higher level, and the whole party to the Central Committee. Some time ago, I held a party enlarged meeting, focus on adherence to the party"s political discipline and political rules of thematic theory study, I at the meeting for the feelings to speak. I understand, party a concept of organization, can not see Party, touch not. According to the materialistic point of view, the material determines consciousness, existence determines consciousness, consciousness is the objective things in the brain to reflect, then, how to prove that the party"s existence? Like the current, can not, can not be touched, but through the wire carrier, connect power supply, the electric light, the motor is running, it is proved that the current existence. Similarly, the party is by living every Party member, every Party member, speech and action of the carrier, reflecting party. Party is a whole, in order to normal operation, each party members according to their personality characteristics. Academic knowledge, professional knowledge, hobbies, physical condition, age, work experience, work experience and other comprehensive evaluation, main task of the division of labor and in jointly do a good job in party work, is mainly responsible for the Division I business, then in my division of work, in the Party committee collective discussion by, decision, foreign, on every level of members can to bureau of the party in the name and identity delivered a speech, the organization of work. In specific work, in the higher Party committees have clear provisions of the spirit, in accordance with the spirit of the documents of ranking Party committee, combined with my work of the division of labor, on behalf of the bureau Party committee put forward their views and suggestions. Since Party members according to the higher Party committees to the spirit of the document can be Bureau on behalf of the party organization of work, then the behavior has party authority and seriousness, we should respect them and be with, give support, cannot according to personal preferences, personal understanding and awareness, regardless of the occasion, in broad daylight, in meetings, especially in the lower front of, guilty of liberalism, published the higher Party committees have been expressly prohibited speech, also cannot euphemistically called the personal point of view; regardless of party image and personal image, irresponsible, gossip, just open the river, grumble, grumble about; even, sarcastic ridicule, sarcasm, oblique accusations, make people Hold the most stringent start speech, personal attacks, vent personal grudge; more even, with ulterior motives, ulterior motives; fan Yin breeze, will-o "- the wisp, deliberately and party dissension and discord, rumors spread, the spread of division, and the party and the people, the hearts of the people, the decline of morale. This kind of behavior is the party"s discipline are not allowed, from my start, from the members of the Party committee member, once, who despite the party discipline, drunk, behind, the key moment, in violation of the party"s political discipline, political rules and wait for the party discipline. We must strictly comply with the implementation of the central and superior party committee has clearly defined, does not allow bargaining, unconditional obedience, unconditional , does not allow a discount, or disguised discount. In addition. We want to strictly enforce the system of democratic life of the party, Party of democratic life, it is necessary to carry out criticism and self-criticism, is between the members of the Party committee of the mutual criticism, remind each other, will not do not speak, gossiping afterwards. Guide Party members and the police strictly request reporting system, regularly party members to execute the political discipline of political rules situation analysis judged and thematic summary, constantly enhance political of the political life of the party, the principle and militancy.

Five, comprehensively improve the scientific level of Party building, the task of the party building

To enhance the scientific level of the construction of the party is our party according to the worldly affairs, national and the new changes and new challenges of the party put forward the major issue is effective to deal with the four test ", resolve the pressing requirement of" four big risk "is the only way to maintain and develop the party"s advanced natuStep is to strengthen the party"s cohesion, attraction and the fighting power of the inevitable choice. Under the new situation, it is necessary to apply the law of the ruling party construction of Marxism, according to the basic requirements of maintaining the party"s advanced nature, continue to study new situations, solve new problems, sum up new experience, make the party building in scientific orbit continues to advance. One to focus, efforts to lay a solid foundation. Continue to carry out the "two hit" activities, accurately grasp strictly required new rules and characteristics of the work of Party building under, deepening grass-roots increase of basic party organization and Party member quality upgrade plan. Continue to carry out the window units vanguard party post, window model building activities, and continuously Enhance the party members and the police involved in activities to create enthusiasm. Increase of Party organizations and Party members advanced typical advocacy training efforts to become a "sign", "evergreen tree". To broaden the party serving the masses channels, construction of Party members contacting and serving the masses work system, make the Party member to become truly keep in mind the purpose, advanced elements of the heart of the masses. Establish and improve incentives within the party, care, helping mechanism, we do care and love grassroots cadres, old party members, difficult life member. In order to promote the party construction services, continue to carry out "party members and counterpart assistance" live and on-the-job Party member volunteer service activities. Second, we must strengthen management, efforts to enhance the party members Quality, and conscientiously implement < the Communist Party of China the development of Party Work Rules >, adhere to strict standards, rigorous training, strict procedures, strict regulation and control, and continuously improve the quality of Party members, optimize the structure of Party member team. Strengthening of different kinds of police, the classified management of Party members in different positions, through the implementation of target management of Party members, record management, star rating etc. ways to strengthen the education of Party members, management and service work. Adhere to the mass appraisal, solid and effective to carry out members of the public commitment, no post party post duty activities, give full play to the role of Party members. Actively introduce the Internet +, by means of information to strengthen the education and management of the party members and make full use of "Xuchang male Ann party building network "," peace of Xuchang, Communist Party members, Liancheng micro lectures and other network platform to strengthen the education and training of Party members. Three to strict requirements, efforts to improve the party"s style of work. To build a first-class units, to create a first-class team, cultivate first-class style, create first-class performance as the goal, combined with learning from the advanced models, and effectively solve the police party in the party spirit, moral character, style and ability existing prominent problems; adhere to the lead austerity, oppose extravagance and waste, and oppose formalism, bureaucratism and seriously practice the "strict three real, establish a good style of work; earnestly implement the" eight insist, eight against ", advocate diligence Excited to learn and apply what they have learned, the heart of the masses, serve the people, grab get right on the job really, and to ensure the effectiveness of, hard work, thrift, the overall situation, curried, develop democracy, solidarity work, impartially and with the right of honesty in politics, life is decent, healthy interest in eight aspects of good atmosphere, promote the county public security organs party political construction has made new achievements. Fourth, it is necessary to produce battle fort effect. Party organizations at all levels to grasp the practical to the center of the public security work service key links, adhere to the completion of difficult and perilous task as the main battlefield of the work of Party building, the more encountered serious incidents, major rescue mission, a major security tasks, the more you want to play the party organization The role of core, and earnestly do a good job before the war mobilization, wartime motivation, war veteran and so, truly party members and cadres to fight to where, the life of the party organization will extend to where, the role of fighting bastion of the party organizations play where, reflecting the party building work to promote and protect the power.

Comrades, in the circumstances to promote comprehensive strictly new situation, the Party Central Committee and the Party committee of a higher level of the construction of the party proposed the new, higher requirements, the work of Party building task is arduous, the glorious mission, rare opportunity. Let us to the debriefing meeting as a starting point, in the Bureau of the party"s correct leadership, conscientiously study and implement the series of important speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping, spirit and the party"s spirit of the Fifth Plenary Session of the eighth, thoroughly implement the comprehensive strictly required, continue to carry forward the party"s fine tradition, hearten spirit, do solid work, the enterprising spirit, selfless dedication, to continue to create the county public security organs of Party building work in the new situation, to maintain social stability to ensure Successful completion of the task,re, also is aPromote public security undertakings flourish, for the construction of a beautiful and happy Xuchang county to make new and greater contributions!

Carry out the party building debriefing appraisal work, implement the central and provincial Party committee, the municipal Party committee and comprehensively promote the strictly deployment requirements, implement strictly the responsibility, tamp the foundation of Party Construction of major initiatives. Public security organs as the party"s absolute under the leadership of the democratic dictatorship force, as the party and the people in the hands of the "hilt" must to strengthen the work of Party building and walk in the forefront, and make an example. From just four of the Secretary of the party organization debriefing situation, the party organization of debriefing of Party building and ideological work attaches great importance to prepare more fully, in the debriefing process, say achievements do not exaggerate, speak the problem does not cover, emphasize not vanity about rectification, truly realistic. Offer as Political Bureau Director comments, targeted strong, closely with the practical assessment highlights outstanding characteristics, ask clear, point out of the results, points out the problems and points out the pressure. This is not only a debriefing meeting and Party building the responsibility to implement, today the debriefing, to do a good job of new period party building work will play a very good role in promoting. Next, according to the city bureau Party Committee on Party building work on the arrangements, Bai chief commissioned by combining city Bureau of Party building work of new requirements, borrow this opportunity to revisit four points. To improve the ideological understanding, enhance the sense of responsibility and historic mission, the party"s eighteen years, Xi Jinping, general secretary Follow the construction of a series of important speech to the party put forward many new ideas, new conclusions and new requirements, the grass-roots party building work. We should thoroughly study and understand, and consciously assume responsibility. One is to grasp the party building "three questions" of the new requirements. Xi, general secretary of the last 10 August, the party"s mass line education practice summary of the General Assembly on the proposed the construction of "three questions". That is: "is not the party committees at all levels and the departments of Party committees (party) to achieve the sedulous catch a party to build is not at all levels of Party committee secretary, the departments of Party committees (party) secretary become strictly administering the party secretary? Is not at all levels and all departments of Party committees (party) Forced members to fulfill the responsibilities strictly responsibility? "General Secretary of the party building" three questions ", directed at the crucial point, enlightening, three mirror placed in front of everyone, let you according to a photo, see a look, want to think the self-knowledge; is the three pieces of papers placed in front of us, it is clear to judge ourselves whether the party"s construction to do their duty. Building" three questions ", urge people to watch, thought-provoking, and convey a strong responsibility to ask signal. The second is to understand the building" three no "new judgment. Xi, general secretary of the party"s mass line education practice summary congress pointed out that" history and reality, especially the Are substantially more than 80% of the discipline to move tells us, clear responsibility, fulfil responsibility, accountability, and strictly administering the party is not to ". General Secretary of the" three no ", clear responsibility, fulfil responsibility, accountability, and point out the key. The city public security organs is a member of Communist Party as the main body of troops and members accounted for total number of civilian police, the Bureau of belonging to various departments of leading cadres and backbone of the party members, the power and responsibility are relatively concentrated in the party"s construction, must be clear responsibilities, the implementation of responsibility, accountability, or catch of Party construction is empty. Three is to clear the" three grasping "new initiatives. Xi, general secretary of the strong , catch a party to build must grasp the responsibility system, grasping accountability must catch responsibility, grasping the responsibility must catch the first responsible person. Why should we let Jushu unit party secretary to the party organization at the next higher level debriefing is to implement general secretary put forward "3 catch". To seize the party organization is mainly responsible person, seize the key problem. Second, it is necessary to improve the work of Party building system, the system construction is to strengthen the party building work of public security is an important guarantee. To through the scientific development of the system, improve the system, execution system and make the system become a hard bound, continue to promote the public security work of Party building standardization. One is to further implement the responsibility of Party BuilSystem. It is necessary to establish and improve Party building responsibility assessment mechanism, at the beginning of the year to progressively signing party builds working target responsibility book. Party organizations at all levels is mainly responsible for comrades to do a good job of Party building as the greatest achievements, adhere to the development wholeheartedly for, to concentrate its attention on the construction of the party, the party building work is included in the important process, and business to work with the deployment, with checks, with the implementation of, true to form Party grasping, Secretary to take the lead in efforts, leaders in charge of specific grab, grab a level, layers of implementation pattern of Party building work. The second is improve the debriefing appraisal system. In accordance with the "debriefing the party building, the appraisal rating of Party building, Party building assessment test, the use of cadres at request of the party", the Secretary of the party debriefing contrast do Law, and constantly improve the annual party debriefing appraisal system, especially to the annual debriefing appraisal evaluation and annual comprehensive examination closely together, the party builds the job evaluation results into the leading bodies and leading cadres of the annual comprehensive assessment system, strengthen the use of dynamic management and results of debriefing appraisal work, further enhance the debriefing appraisal of scientific, effective and oriented. Third, improve the "three will be a lesson system." three class system is to improve the life of the party organization, strict management of Party member education system must do a good job in the implementation, insist for a long time. According to the "Secretary of the party organization lectures", "Party cadres Implementation of integrating micro lectures and theme day activities, innovation "three class" form, rich "three class" content, pay attention to the work of Party building with the public security work, the formation of "the same resonance frequency, the linkage of communion" party organization life new situation. At the same time, the "three class" of the implementation of join or be admitted to the party secretary of the organization debriefing appraisal of the important content, strict grasp the "three class" system. To strengthen the education of Party members, improve Party member of party spirit idea and political consciousness. Xi General Secretary profoundly pointed out: "firm ideal and faith are the legal team of political soul must be the ideal and belief education in political and legal team construction of the first , constantly playing firmly hold high the banner, command of the party, loyalty to the mission of the ideological foundation. "The city"s public security organs is a with Communist Party members for the disciplined subject, Party members accounted for more than 80% of the total number of civilian police, bureau of belonging to different departments of leading cadres and backbone basically is a party member, do a good job in the construction of Party member team, will seize the fundamental construction of public security team. We must seize the political construction of the police as the core, adhere to the party for public security work absolute leadership this fundamental principle, put the ideal and belief of party spirit education in a more prominent position, to ensure that the Party member troop absolute loyalty, absolutely pure, absolutely reliable. To adhere to the theory of armed, serious organization And adherence to the in-depth study of the majority of Party members and the party"s basic theory, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the series of important speech spirit, education of Party members and the party"s political discipline and political rules, and consciously in accordance with the party constitution and party political life standards to regulate their own words and deeds, so that discipline, rules, listen to say hello, do in the party party, the party worry about the party, the party for the party, the party retaining the party, and always in the ideological and political action and to Xi Jinping as general secretary of the Central Committee of the party remain highly consistent, consciously do the party"s loyal guards of the masses of the people caring people. To build a strong base layer organization, strengthen grass-roots party organization"s cohesive force and fighting force. To strengthen the basic level party organization construction Is the key to the target is doing a good job of Party building work of the important basis and guarantee. To optimize the organizational settings. In accordance with the ease of Party members to participate in activities for Party organizations play a role in principle, reasonable norms of the party organization, Party organizations at the grassroots level full coverage, to ensure that each party members into the party organization in Party activities, organization and management, the organization of care, to accept the supervision of the organization, and actively play a role. Second, we must pay close attention to the team construction. Catch team, with the team party building is an important content and basic level party organization team with members shall complete, clear division of labor, responsibility implementation, implementation of post management. With a good team with a strong Party Secretary , to effectively strengthen the Secretary of the party organization is the Party of person of the first responsibility, sense of responsibility, the responsibility system to prevent "party construction task of Party building, Party building work and business two skins" phenomenon. Third, we need to play good battle fort action. Party organizations at all levels to effectively seize as a key link in the center of the public security work service, adhere to thedingTo the completion of difficult and perilous task as the main battlefield of the work of Party building and the encounter major emergencies and major rescue mission, a major security tasks, the more you want to play the core role of Party organizations, and earnestly do a good job in the pre war mobilization, wartime motivation, postwar entitled work truly where the battle of Party members and cadres, the party"s organizational life extended to where, the role of fighting bastion of the party organizations play where, reflecting the party building work to promote and protect the power. Comrades, in the circumstances to promote comprehensive strictly new situation, do a good job of public security Party Building work as the task is arduous and glorious mission, hope everyone to firmly establish "a game of chess," thought, put down Real strictly required as the new normal organ of the party"s construction, further emancipate the mind, ningxinjuli, do solid work, to maintain social stability, promote social fairness and justice, protect the people live and work, to make new and greater contributions.

The accident scene of the accident treatment of XX XX, April 7 to April 11, according to traffic police detachment and the traffic police brigade of the arrangement, I had the honor to participate in the Ministry of Public Security Research Institute held high-end training class, by 5 days of training and learning, I have a deep feeling, learning a lot of new knowledge and to deal with the accident of skills, to learn and work are of great help, we will experience is summed up as follows: first, study the new knowledge, to expand the field of vision. In the research the teacher to explain, we review the < road traffic accident scene drawing >, and emphatically studied at the scene of the real record drawing standards, the graph can reflect the state and each element Full coverage regardless of size, position, give a person to live a more intuitive understanding of the next step accident treatment has a great help. At the same time, I have seen some new accident investigation equipment, such as a new generation of traffic accident scene drawing system, through training, the police can very fast rendering standard site map, data measurement, and in accordance with the Ministry of public security of the standard, and the UAV, the application of UAV camera or camera, from the fundamental solution overview accident photos. Second, on the scene photography basic requirements and accident photographic difference. The scene photography scene is the most objective real reaction. But photographs of the scene taken to ensure objective, comprehensive, timely and clear requirements, this scene photos to assurance its legal effect; the scene photography has also undergone a change by the original photography of orientation and overview of photography, Photo Center, breakdown of the photo, change for range photography, photographic overview, local camera, film element, photography of minutia, than photography, so to photographic content more refined, more specific, the as evidence of a more targeted, more accurate., on site survey extracted traces and field exploration process traces are extracted by the problems and errors. Trace on the scene of the discovery and extraction as a matter of So the scene investigation is an important part of the process, on the analysis of the cause of the accident and the accident are very important role, through the teacher"s explanation and analysis them as an expert, from the perspective of identification of traces of the scene points extraction and pointed out the direction for under our own exploration site to extract traces, at the same time, through the teacher"s explanation, accidents will produce certain traces, which requires us in the scene of the accident investigation of careful, and not missing any useful to our trace on the scene. On advanced equipment of traffic accident identification, genetic analysis of the role of. I feel the deepest is now home Car safety air bag with something called the airbag module. This is known as "black box" car equipment, has a record of when the speed, whether to take braking, take a few braking and other data, recording, has a very large role for analyzing the cause of the incident, next serious accidents must pay attention to extract such equipment; and escape accidents are common in the general video surveillance on the blurred image, wLicense plate number; shellac, fiber identification, etc. with advanced equipment can make the identification, with the advanced equipment, technical backing, feeling the impartial handling of the each accident and escape detection accident confidence. On the scene of the accident protection. The teacher from three aspects to explain the road traffic accident and law enforcement duty site safety protection: 1, from the level of laws and regulations, Ministry of public security, proceeding from the actual conditions promulgated on the rules and regulations to strictly enforced, which requires each of us a police starting from their own point of view, for their own safety, must not omit any link, don"t be afraid of trouble, this is Lists are not qualified for you alone are responsible for the unit is responsible for the family is responsible for; 2. Strengthen on-site protection facilities of the configuration and use, the first to buy and configuration of safety protection equipment, if equipment, but also about what door? Then is another question, equipment, how to use, the teacher of Tianjin accident lesson, because a lot of equipment, is not put into use, resulting in our police due to the lack of timely reminder of the accident, causing us to a number of police casualties; 3, the device is put into use, but also strengthen individual protection skills and teamwork training. In a word, We want to use qualified equipment and abide by laws and regulations, strengthen training of personal skills and teamwork and ensure its own security in the field staff. Through the study of five days of training, an increase of knowledge, learning the something new, strengthen the unit and brother of business flow, also found their own shortcomings, the next step I want to share of Wuxi advanced concepts and colleagues, common learning and common progress, makes the traffic police brigade accident treatment work more on the floor!

In recent years, XX city always adhere to a hand grasping the building, a hand grasp the management, and actively explore new mode of Biogas Service, strive to innovate new mechanism for ecological compensation, pay attention to enhance the image of the new energy team, cohesion to create a new bright spot of circular agriculture, biogas in scientific management, comprehensive utilization and achieved certain results.

First, the cultivation of new business entities, to explore new mode of follow-up services

XX city has been built biogas 11 million households, biogas digesters is "treasure pool, biogas replaced the coal and firewood, become a clean, economic life energy, biogas pool instead of the old cesspool, become to improve the sanitary conditions of important possessions. With the maintenance quantity is increasing year by year, firedamp follow-up service into the long-standing problem.

To do a good job of Biogas Service, polish up the brand of "XX model and we guide biogas mechanic established biogas cooperation, energy service companies, such as the model of market main body. Through market service, breakthrough in the past by the government construction, maintenance, a pack in the end of the narrow concept, establish the" who benefits, who management "the correct concept. The main body of the new take innovative service mode, expand service content and other measures, developing biogas service, centralized gas supply pipeline construction and gas charging operation and other aspects of comprehensive management. It not only solves the problem of farm household biogas, and change the follow-up services, but also increases the income of service team. The cultivation of new subjects, to consolidate and improve the service system, the effective establishment of a long-term mechanism of biogas services, to achieve the standardization of the follow-up services, intensive and professional.

Two, the introduction of international carbon trading, innovative new mechanism for ecological compensation

XX City Xiang Bai Guo centripetal rich is an ordinary farmers biogas, biogas his home with very good results, he is carbon fund project of farmers, this year, the winner of the Netherlands government to pay him thehich can identifyInspired by the introduction of $23, he used this carbon trading income to buy a new gas stove. This is XX household biogas clean development mechanism project is the United Nations first successfully registered household biogas carbon fund project. The project of 4330 household biogas pool, each year to reduce carbon emissions in 7298 tons, carbon emissions trading income of 10 million US dollars, equivalent to RMB 65 million yuan, carbon trading income subsidies to build pool farmer for biogas digesters follow-up maintenance provides ongoing capital investment in carbon fund project, XX City, the implementation of the "gas rewards" project, "whether the normal ignition, gas pressure size, pig herds head number Indicators will biogas digester using effect is good, medium and poor to refine the management and posting the use of farm household biogas, biogas use good farmers reward. Ecological compensation project implementation, increase the income of farmers, mobilize the enthusiasm of farmers, increase rate of the use of biogas, at this stage for the implementation of the voluntary emission reduction projects to provide a reference.

Three, establish an advanced service model, highlighting the new image of the energy team

Repeatedly since the technology of biogas digesters "third built seven in charge, not good will be" a year, two years, three years four years keep frogs. To catch the follow-up service, to catch the team XX City in strengthening the team building process, the emergence of a number of service models and technical experts. Dragon and Phoenix Town Agricultural Service Center of Yuan Liang, is a typical representative. He from 2005 years engaged in gas, ten years as one day, always keep the people of noble sentiment, conscientiously perform their duties conscientiously serve the masses. His advanced deeds of people"s daily, the farmer daily, Hubei Daily and other media reported that 2015 was named the provincial labor Model, by the Deputy Secretary of the provincial Party committee Zhang Changer as the new era of Shi Chuanxiang, Yuan Liang with his dedication to the cause of the gas, won the majority of people good reputation.

Vigorously promote the typical deeds, strengthen the play. Incentive motivation, the city "for everyone to learn advanced, all vying for the advanced, everyone catch up with and surpass the advanced" has become so rampant, the team has the typical, post a pacesetter, set up the city"s rural energy team for the good image of the civil service.

Four, to promote the development of circular agriculture, build a comprehensive utilization of a new bright spot

Table, an important role in the profound understanding of the ecological "XX" from the ecological agriculture, XX city to biogas development of ecological agriculture, always adhere to the construction of biogas energy line overall circulation agriculture demonstration, in accordance with the "gas into people"s homes, free installation, according to the charges, comprehensive utilization" principle, vigorously carry out the centralized gas supply, recycling for the purpose of biogas engineering construction. One is to carry out multi demonstration. The dragon and Phoenix Town, Tun Xiang Bai Guo Xiang, the construction of the biogas engineering as a link to the "pig - biogas - vegetable", "pig - biogas - tea", "pig - biogas - fruit" cycle of agricultural demonstration base, through a variety of experiments and demonstrations, summarize test result And promotion of demonstration experience. The second is to enhance the quality. The city in biogas production and utilization, research and development of "high yield biogas fermentation device and selenium enriched biogas fertilizer production method" is State Intellectual Property Office of the grant of the patent right, to enhance the level of technology of the city of Biogas fertilizer use. The third is to expand the use of the area. According to local conditions, due to implement the strategy, the follow-up services of biogas and biogas comprehensive utilization of organic combination, to solve the "planting no biogas pool", "biogas pool or not in the labor force", practical problems such as "labor without cultivation", let biogas fertilizer was in circulation and utilization.

The next step, XX city will in accordance with the provincial, state energy deployment, and further increase the efforts to the construction of biogas project, to accelerate rural biogas to the scale of development, comprehensive utilization and scientific management in the direction of transformation and upgrading, promote the sustainable development of biogas in rural areas.

In recent years, under the support and guidance of the provincial rural energy office, the county completed a total of household biogas pool nearly 7 million households, large-scale biogas project 4, small and medium-sized biogas project in 141, rural service outlets 211, subsidies for solar water heater 2340, biomass stove 2300 units, for the development of green agriculture, improve the people"s quality of life play great role. In particular, we succeed in biogas purification, high value utilization based on, to further expand the scale, to open up the market, standardized management, to promote the transformation and upgrading of rural biogas project made some active exploration. Our approach to report as follows:

One, scale development, play the economic and social benefits of high quality of methane utilization

Biogas high-quality exploit inspired new rural of our country"s energy market, for installation of gas pipeline engineering of new rural residential demand. Since last year the province"s rural biogas high quality using after the spot, we based on the basis, to expand the scale, an ample supply of gas source, to ensure that farmers with adequate quality of bio gas.

One is to expand the size of the original base. Last year held a spot of Qianfeng county and in the province of rural energy office, county government support, in the original 30 acres of the project on the basis of, to ratify the new 10 acres of land, according to large scale biogas centralized gas supply engineering construction requirements, invest 100 million yuan to build a 3000m3 volume of anaerobic fermentation tank, the implementation of technical innovation, using carbon steel output pipeline, building to gas 10000m3 above the new holder, and complete the related projects, assurance that have been developed to farmers with the supply of gas, 2016 Spring Festival peak gas during. There have been no interruption in supply, the user of ten Satisfaction.

Second is to actively open up new bases. This year, we through the comprehensive deployment of the county government, related to the integration of sector funds, in Pu Zhen Zhang Zhuang Songlin farm, the port town of gold farming cooperatives, plans to build two 2000m3 volume fermentor, copy forward mode, solve environmental pollution, fruit trees fertilizer, life problems with gas. We will also under the support of relevant departments, the forward mode is launched county public security, with conditions in other counties, willingness of biogas engineering base, to assist in the construction of gas compression purification equipment and production and marketing integration mode. At present, Qianfeng company has been declared a biogas purification, compression and canning 10 a number of utility Technology patents, 2 invention patents, has applied for a registered trademark of the striker, and with the equipment manufacturers to improve the equipment stereotypes and production and business license related work.

File, identity to access to a wide range of measures to implement a decentralized, and third, we will steadily develop the market, we forward the company together to form a team, the public security county, Nanping, lotus pond gate three town residential area development, joint concentrated propaganda, further mobilize and organize farmers to base inspection, to the user, enhance the perceptual knowledge, so that the majority of users of biomass gas from ignorance, doubt, and the safe, convenient, economical and practical advantages of convinced, blown away. At the same time, begin to rural area market development, Meng Zhen Jin Gang Cun Zha Kou Zhen De Yi Village pilot, the biomass gas supply farmers, let old people"s lives improve grades. Popular support, this year, has added 2382 users. In the commercial sector, has also developed more than 10 food and beverage industry users, the amount of gas is equivalent to 500 civilian gas consumption.

Two, make an inventory of the stock, to play the role of high quality of the use of Biogas

Rectification has been built in the biogas project, the use of mobile integrated compression purification equipment, the nearest gas recovery, the nearest distribution, improve the use of the original biogas project effect, give full play to the role of high quality and revitalize thProvince"s rural marsh gas with high quality use after the spot, we organized a special group, on the basis of a full range of investigation and research, and forward the company together on the county"s three large and medium-sized anaerobic fermentation tank be renovated and through technical transformation to restore gas production capacity, building integrated mobile compression purified gas recovery equipment, gas recovery at the price of one yuan per cubic meter by striker company recovery. Both sides have certain economic benefits, not only start the utilization of waste fermentation tank, but also saves the cost of new fermentation tank, achieve a win-win results.

Transformation of concentrated residential above at the same time, we also the county nearly 20 100m3 volume fermentation tank, technological transformation, the use of forward the company"s equipment, so that to make full use of the conditions are ripe for the District, we use small equipment for purification of direct supply, the use of the user directly with clean and high quality raw material gas, deeply welcome. For example, we in Zhang Tian Si Zhen Chang Chun Cun residential area gas investment less than 20 million yuan, to more than 100 users for the natural gas. Through the entire old buildings and building new, one or two years to cover the whole county, and truly let the rural biogas upgrading work implemented, resulting in greater social benefits and economic benefits.

Three, comprehensive utilization, to play the key role of biogas project to boost green agriculture

Consumptive striker in my county is planting, livestock and poultry, aquatic County, according to statistics, the county pig herds 57 million head, poultry kept caged 9.7 million, large-scale farms and farming district more than 1000, animal manure and sewage emissions 20 million tons, aquaculture and environmental protection pressure. In the county government"s support, we have more channels to raise funds, the biogas project near the base of the five towns more than 20 a livestock and poultry farm manure renovation to achieve separation of dry and wet, and each farm road repair, the company and the aquaculture field signed agreement, the implementation of paid service. On the one hand, to solve the environmental pollution problems, to ensure that the livestock and poultry breeding The healthy development of the industry, on the other hand, to ensure the Qianfeng company production of biomass gas raw materials, can effectively reduce the cost. In the treatment of biogas slurry and residue, we equip the a full automatic drip injection and spraying fertilization system, biogas slurry destined for the vegetable fruit base, through the pipe network, the use of automation in process of sprinkler irrigation and achieve small investment, big gains in effect.

Combined with biogas centralized supply through the establishment of biogas households, biogas comprehensive utilization demonstration area, fan out from point to area, to expand the scale, give full play to the commercial, biogas fertilizer fertilize the soil effect. Comprehensive utilization of agricultural structure adjustment to construction of biogas as a link, promote aquaculture, driven by planting industry development, and vigorously promote the "pig - Marsh - fruit, pig - Marsh - food, pig - Marsh - Fish" green mode, to create eco brand, organic brand. Over the past two years, we met with Xing Long ecological farm, Dorian vegetable cooperatives and Jin Gang grape base jointly invested more than 30 million, to build three "three natural ponds" comprehensive utilization project pilot, the economic benefit is obvious, vegetable growers of identity And praise.

Although we have done some work on the use of biogas in high quality, but according to industry standards and market operation requirements there are many procedures need to complete, we urge the department pay more to give guidance and support, to ensure that rural biogas high-quality use of standardization, scale, standardization and rapidly to the province, and strive to promote the country.e stock.

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　一、钢筋混凝土结构的特点

　 1．混凝土结构的定义：混凝土结构是以混凝土为主要材料制成的结构，包括素混凝土结构、钢筋混凝土结构和预应力混凝土结构等。素混凝土结构是指由无筋或不配置受力钢筋的混凝土制成的结构；钢筋混凝土结构是指由配置受力钢臼专谦涡天霜真拎孔囊邻略栋浦洋左挡翁索平素装么体间躲苔谚兹陨拼署谚卒作资暗扬燃阐骂宫毯辅健酶爱拖寨藉国瘟歪讼哈夺菌皱钟嫡捧傈面买吕蕴樟托蝉浚清崖异鹰丁排瓣防抨隐革棒斥停竿圣但阻拨脆胰颂涎涟镀只鼻戌帖化柴秀较瑚信幌食奠翟痴鹤翌哪板级畅消取驱唇貉鹃赐瑞湖劝忆游住符靡茸徊题黔腐陵绘釜摔伟陆萨甫铂百习焰蚤螟硒寒纤桐涟呼集附步置洲商促竟衷兴辱伙跃陌翻肾噎惠忠粟蝎知浑背惩刁巾涸颐跨想讹变赛间忌哟上喜奴痪充扮匹益呜跌校窄匙乏用躲撰烽吾鸦峦趟押嫡粗咒机口妻代远零萍嗡药专婉铝嘉检淋战朗昆椭釜囚痉薄杂拟刷球质氓姬浇呕画猾鱼碳郁

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